Congenital anomalies of the vertebral column: a case study on ancient and modern Egypt

The aim of this paper is to identify the frequency of congenital anomalies of the vertebral column in ancient Egyptians. The material for this study consisted of 272 skeletons excavated from Giza and belonging to the Old Kingdom (the time of the early pyramid builders). The vertebral columns of these skeletons were examined for the different types of congenital anomalies that affect the vertebrae. Nine cases (3.33%) were affected with spina bifida occulta, while six cases (2.22%) had transitional vertebrae at the lumbosacral joint. These frequencies are compared with other ancient populations. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Osteoporosis among ancient Egyptians

Osteoporosis is a condition of reduced total bone mass per unit volume for the normal ratio of bone mineral to bone matrix. The present work deals with the investigation and evaluation of osteoporosis in ancient Egyptians of two social classes from the Old Kingdom in Giza. The aims of this study are to provide information about the lifestyle and health status of ancient Egyptians, and to detect the causes of osteoporosis. The material consisted of 74 skeletons (43 males and 31 females) from two different social classes (high officials and workers). Skeletons were excavated from the Giza Necropolis and belonged to the Old Kingdom (2687–2191 BC). Dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to measure bone mineral density (BMD) at different skeletal sites (radius, fourth lumbar vertebra and head of femur). Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to show the microarchitectural structure of the bone. Results showed a significant decrease of BMD values in old age groups compared with younger ones in both sexes. In addition, SEM of trabecular bone in osteoporotic cases demonstrated that the horizontal trabeculae were more affected than the vertical trabeculae. Comparison between high officials and workers revealed that osteoporosis was more frequent in male workers than in male high officials, and in female high officials than in female workers. An elevated prevalence of osteoporosis among male workers may be related to the effects of nutritional stress and excessive workload, while a sedentary lifestyle may have played a role in the occurrence of osteoporosis among female high officials. Moreover, osteoporosis occurs earlier and more frequently in females than males, which may be related to the hormonal changes that accompany the menopause in females. This study emphasises the importance of gender and lifestyle factors in influencing the severity of osteoporosis. Age‐related bone loss at most skeletal sites is noted in both sexes of ancient Egyptians. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spinal degenerative lesions and spinal ligamentous ossifications in ancient Chinese populations of the Yellow River Civilization

Rheumatological diseases, whether inflammatory or degenerative, are ubiquitous among modern Asian people but very few palaeopathological studies have been performed in Asia on this subject. Since 1996, we have been carrying out a palaeoepidemiological survey of rheumatic diseases in ancient Chinese and Japanese skeletal populations. Findings on the spinal column in ancient Chinese populations (ca. 5000 bc –ad 1644) in Henan Province (centre of the Yellow River Civilization) are reported in this study. The examined number of the people over 20 years old was 365 (185 males, 169 females and 11 unsexed). Of these, 248 were young adults, 98 were middle adults and 19 were old adults. Crude prevalence (number/100) in total population of vertebral osteophytosis/facet osteoarthritis was 17.5/7.7, 17/3.7 and 44.6/21.1 at the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine, respectively. That of ossified anterior longitudinal ligament (OALL) or Forestier's disease was around 3 at each of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine. Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) of the cervical spine was observed in five out of 114 skeletons with cervical spine preserved, while it did not exist in any thoracic and lumbar segment. Ossification of the ligamentum flavum (OLF) was predominantly observed in the thoracic spine, the crude prevalence of which was 36.7. Overall spinal degenerative lesions seemed to have been more prevalent and spinal ligament ossifications less prevalent in ancient Chinese populations than in modern people. None of the inflammatory lesions like rheumatoid spondylitis, as well as seronegative spondyloarthropathies, were detected. This is the first palaeopathological study in which the prevalence of OPLL and OLF, the two clinically important spinal ligamentous ossifications causing myelopathy in modern mankind, was surveyed in ancient skeletons. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sailing and Sailing Rigs in the Ancient Mediterranean: implications of continuity,variation and change in propulsion technology

Ships and boats form the foundations of the maritime connectivity that is a central part of our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean. While the general chronological sequence of sail and sailing‐rig development is well established, the implications are less‐well discussed. This article sets out how sails and sailing rigs developed in antiquity, with emphasis on the Greco‐Roman world. Subsequently, instances of innovation are defined. Why specific pieces of maritime technology were, or were not, widely adopted is considered. Long‐term technological continuity can be comprehended, and a shared maritime culture of sailing in the ancient Mediterranean is suggested.     

Confirmation of the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex‐specific DNA in three archaeological specimens

This journal published the first reported identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTB) DNA in ancient human remains but concerns were raised about the article two years after publication. These were based on methodology which, in the field of ancient DNA, was still developing. Here we present a re‐examination of the 1993 research conducted on three specimens which exhibited palaeopathologies indicative of tuberculosis. The specimens were: an ulna from pre‐European‐contact Borneo, a spine from Byzantine Turkey, and a lumbar‐sacral spine from 17th century Scotland. There was insufficient material to permit re‐examination of all of the original samples. The earlier results were confirmed in two independent laboratories using different methodologies. MTB DNA complex‐specific DNA amplicons were obtained, and sequenced in both laboratories, in a re‐analysis of samples which supported the earlier findings. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Tomb of the Three Brothers in Palmyra: The Use of Mimetite,A Rare Yellow Pigment,in A Rich Decoration

The wall paintings of the Tomb of the Three Brothers in Palmyra display a very rich Greco‐Roman iconography. The study of the painting reveals the use of a great variety of pigments, including Egyptian blue and an extremely rare bright yellow pigment, mimetite, of which no other traces are known for this period. This pigment was identified through the combined use of two methods of analysis, scanning electron microscopy associated with X‐ray microanalysis (SEM–EDS) and X‐ray micro‐diffraction (XRD). The varied chromatic palette used underlines the refinement and the particular care given to these decorations. Notable differences have been found between the pigments of the decorations of the arch and those used for the rest of the chamber.     

Nutritional and disease stress of juveniles from the Dakhleh Oasis,Egypt

Bioarchaeologists use skeletal health indicators to measure how ancient populations adapted to their physical, cultural and biological environments. Skeletons of infants and children are rarely included in these kinds of analyses because of factors such as poor preservation, small sample size, incomplete recovery or research design. In this study, skeletal remains of juveniles aged from foetal to 15 years (N = 238) from Kellis 2, a Romano‐Byzantine cemetery in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt, are analysed to shed light on how infants and children were affected by Roman policies during the early years of the Christianisation of Egypt. Non‐specific indicators of physiological stress (cribra orbitalia, enamel hypoplasia and osteoperiostitis) are analysed for post‐natal individuals and interpreted in the context of the physical, cultural and biological landscapes. Results from these analyses suggest moderate levels of skeletal and dental stress with a marked improvement in general health from pre‐Roman times. This study contributes to a better understanding of juvenile paleoepidemiology and mortuary practices in Egypt during the Romano‐Byzantine period. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anatomical and Biomechanical Aspects of the Horse Spine: The Interpretation of Vertebral Fusion in a Medieval Horse from Wroclaw (Poland)

The investigation were carried out on the medieval horses thoracic and lumbar spine excavated between 2009‐2011 by the Institute of Archaeology, University of Wroclaw at New Market Square in Wroclaw (Wratislavia, Breslau), capital city of the Polish province of Lower Silesia. The pathological changes, like: ankylosis of the zygapophyses, fusion of the vertebral bodies and arches and the interspinal space calcification were observed. The X‐ray examination was done. During medieval artefact interpretation the biomechanical aspect of horse's locomotor system was taken into consideration. The archaeozoological material was compared with modern horse's spine (with similar pathological changes and known history of disease). The analysis proved, that the observed osseous reaction was a result of the long‐lasting inflammation. Such a disease appearance accompanies chronic inflammatory state of errector muscles of the spine. It is typical for those horses utilised for the saddle. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Loose‐footed Sails of the Egyptian New Kingdom Ships

The relief from the temple of Ramesses III (1184–1153 BC) in Medinet Habu is often considered to be the most ancient representation of a brailed sail. According to many researchers, the loose‐footed sail and the system of brails were invented in the ancient countries of the Syro‐Canaanite coast and were later adopted by the Ancient Egyptians. However, iconographic material from Ancient Egypt testifies to the indigenous origin of a loose‐footed sail. The article presents an unknown relief from the Amarna period (1352–1336 BC) that further supports this hypothesis.     

Cribra orbitalia and cribra cranii in Roman skeletal remains from the Ravenna area and Rimini (I–IV century AD)

Cribra orbitalia and cribra cranii are considered good indicators of the health and nutritional status of ancient populations, as their presence is often associated with chronic acquired anaemia. The distribution of these lesions in two Roman samples from the Ravenna area and Rimini was considered as a measure of health in relation to their respective environments. Enamel hypoplasia was also assessed as it is symptomatic of childhood physiological stresses such as malnutrition, infectious diseases, physiological traumas, and the like. The differential analysis suggests that the lesions observed are due to chronic acquired anaemia, probably caused by a poor diet, worm infestation, infections and parasitic diseases. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Basketry accessories: footwear,bags and fans in ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptians had —by the New Kingdom— developed many basket making and matting techniques. These techniques were not only used for making all types and sizes of baskets and mats, but were also adopted for making other accessories such as bags, fans and different types of footwear, that seem to have been heavily used. Materials and techniques of nine objects consisting of 2 sandals, 2 shoes, 2 bags, 2 fans and a model of a mat at the Agricultural Museum in Giza were carefully studied.     

试论古代埃及人的历史意识

古代埃及人认为,世界在创建之初创世之神就创建了神圣的宇宙秩序——玛特,它是自然界和人类社会的运行法则。它是一种抽象的观念,是我们理解古代埃及人思想特征的关键所在。以玛特观念为基础,古代埃及人形成了朦胧状态的历史意识,包括神人关系、社会历史发展的模式、创世与王权、历史的作用等。古代埃及人正是以此为基础认识过去,发现人类存在的意义。     

Evidence of amputation as medical treatment in ancient Egypt

The use of surgical techniques in ancient Egyptian medicine has only been suggested indirectly through ancient medical texts and iconography, and there is no evidence of amputation as a means of therapeutic medical treatment. This paper presents four cases of amputation from the archaeological site of Dayr al‐Barshā, Egypt. Two of the cases (dated to the First Intermediate and Middle Kingdom periods, respectively) are from individuals that display bilateral amputations of the feet, one through the metatarso‐phalangeal joints, the other a transmetatarsal amputation. The exact reason for the amputation, perhaps from trauma or disease, is unknown. The particular healing patterns of the distal ends of the amputations suggest these individuals used foot binding or prosthetic devices. Another case represents a healed amputation of the left ulna near the elbow, dated to the Old Kingdom. The final case represents a perimortem amputation of the distal end of the right humerus. The exact date of this individual is unknown, but most likely pertains to the Old Kingdom or First Intermediate period. This individual seems to have suffered a traumatic incident shortly before death, sustaining many fractures, including a butterfly fracture on the right humerus. Several cut marks were identified on top of the butterfly fracture, indicating amputation of the arm at this point. All four cases support the hypothesis that the ancient Egyptians did use amputation as a therapeutic medical treatment for particular diseases or trauma. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF ROMAN LEAD‐GLAZED POTTERY AND ITS CONTINUANCE INTO LATE ANTIQUITY

A broad selection of Roman lead‐glazed pottery dating from the first century ad through the fifth century ad was studied to establish locations of workshops and to address their technology of production. The ceramic bodies were analysed by ICP–AES. In addition, lead isotope analysis was undertaken on a selection of glazes. These findings suggested that there were several regions responsible for the production of lead‐glazed ceramics in the western Roman world, including central Gaul, Italy and, probably, Serbia and Romania. Using the body compositions as a starting point, the glazing techniques employed by each of the potential workshops were examined using electron probe microanalysis. It was determined that there were two primary methods of glazing. The first method used lead oxide by itself applied to non‐calcareous clay bodies, and the second method used a lead oxide‐plus‐quartz mixture applied to calcareous clay bodies. Based on these data for clay composition and glazing method, transfer of technology from the Hellenistic east to the western Roman world was proposed. Likewise, the inheritance of lead‐glazing technology into late antiquity was established by making comparisons to lead‐glazed ceramics dating to the seventh to ninth centuries from Italy, the Byzantine world and Tang Dynasty China.     

ARCHAEOMAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY DURING THE ROMAN PERIOD AT SIWA AND BAHRYN OASIS,EGYPT: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FIDELITY OF EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOMAGNETIC DATA

A preliminary survey was conducted in Siwa and Bahryn Oasis to test the possible influence of various rock magnetic and experimental constraints on the fidelity of the Egyptian archaeomagnetic field record. Five potsherds from the Roman era, which lasted from 1981 bp to 1555 bp , have been investigated. Archaeologists dated the localities to ～1620 bp . Ten ceramic specimens, two of each potsherd, were subjected to archaeointensity determination, including tests for domain state effects, magnetic anisotropy and magnetic cooling rate dependency. Six successful archaeointensity determinations are obtained from three individual cooling units, revealing an average field value of 37.7 μT for the late Roman period in Siwa and Bahryn oasis, which is comparable to the present‐day field strength. The error propagation of the individual uncertainties related to all applied experimental techniques results in a maximum uncertainty estimate of 4.4 μT. The obtained field value is significantly smaller than early results and slightly smaller than some more recent determinations of the field intensity in Egypt. The difference is attributed to a combined effect of alteration, magnetic anisotropy and magnetic cooling rate dependencies. Along with other high‐quality data from the south‐east Mediterranean, our data suggest a field intensity minimum during the Egyptian Roman era.     

DEAD SEA ASPHALT IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN MUMMIES—WHY?

The asphalt from the Dead Sea was an important item of trade in antiquity. Among its many uses, the most widespread was its export to Egypt for use in the mummification process, albeit at a relatively late date; that is, post 1000 bc . Its use became particularly important in the Ptolemaic–Roman period, as demonstrated by a war in the fourth century bc specifically to gain commercial control of this product. Although the reasons why the Egyptians wanted Dead Sea asphalt at this specific time are nowhere specified, the answer may lie in its increasing availability as a (partial) replacement for the plant resins used previously. A review of the historical literature shows that Dead Sea asphalt was used for at least two millennia as a biocidal agent in agricultural practices. It is proposed that the reasons for using Dead Sea asphalt in the mummification process are due to its dual role; first, as an external mechanical shield, when smeared on the exterior of mummy wrapping, to prevent ingress by insects, fungi, bacteria and moisture; and, second, as a biocidal agent (perhaps due to its high sulphur content), which prevented the flesh from decaying, the prime concern for the ancient Egyptians.     

古埃及人的数学成就

古埃及文明的重要成就之一就是科学技术发明 ,其中数学成就引人注目。从保留下来的纸草文献中 ,我们可以了解到古埃及人的数学知识相当丰富 ,他们的数学知识包括算术、代数和几何三个方面。古埃及人的数学产生于生活和实践 ,并广泛应用于生产实践 ,取得了辉煌的成就 ,对人类文明做出了重要贡献。     

A Roman Egyptian Painting Workshop: Technical Investigation of the Portraits from Tebtunis,Egypt

Roman‐period mummy portraits are considered to be ancient antecedents of modern portraiture. However, the techniques and materials used in their manufacture are not thoroughly understood. Analytical study of the pigments as well as the binding materials helps to address questions on what aspects of the painting practices originate from Pharaonic and/or Graeco‐Roman traditions, and can aid in determining the provenance of the raw materials from potential locations across the ancient Mediterranean and European worlds. Here, one of the largest assemblages of mummy portraits to remain intact since their excavation from the site of Tebtunis in Egypt was examined using multiple analytical techniques to address how they were made. The archaeological evidence suggests that these portraits were products of a single workshop and, correspondingly, they are found to be made using similar techniques and materials: wax‐based and lead white–rich paint combined with a variety of iron‐based pigments (including hematite, goethite and jarosite), as well as Egyptian blue, minium, indigo and madder lake to create subtle variations and tones.     

Methods of Palaeodemography: The Case of the Iberian Oppida and Roman Cities in North‐East Spain

Ancient demography is a recurrent topic in archaeology, thanks to new methods and evidence from different surveys and excavations. However, different cultures or periods are studied on their own, without any comparison being made between them and of their population dynamics. The present paper seeks to advance the situation by defining methodologies to allow diachronic comparisons between two different periods and cultures. After setting out a methodological approach, the paper goes on to apply the same to a case study: namely the Roman conquest of north‐east Spain, comparing the demography of the ancient Iberian communities (fourth‐second centuries BCE) to the Roman colonization (first century BCE to first century CE). Roman urbanism is generally supposed to increase the population in a particular territory, but our present evidence refutes this point: a decrease in population is visible in urban or proto‐urban sites from the Iberian to Roman periods, though there is an increase in the rural densities.     

X‐Ray Fluorescence and Stable Isotope Analysis of Marble in Central Lydia,Western Turkey

This paper presents the results of carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis on marble quarries and artefacts from central Lydia, western Turkey under the auspices of the Central Lydia Archaeological Survey (CLAS). The marble survey and sampling programme studied 11 small‐scale quarries in the hinterland of the ancient city of Sardis. These quarries demonstrate evidence of ancient tool use, though their precise periods of operation were unknown prior to this study. The results presented here correlate material from these quarries with material previously studied from Sardis and from several tumuli in the monumental cemetery known as Bin Tepe. This study demonstrates that small quarries were important components of ancient social and economic landscapes, and that they are deserving of more consideration in archaeometric and marble studies. The data also point towards different social and economic factors at work in Lydian and Roman‐period marble acquisition.