Age‐Related Cortical Bone Maintenance and Loss in an Imperial Roman Population

This article explores age‐ and sex‐related patterns of cortical bone loss, assessed by radiogrammetry of the second metacarpal, from a skeletal sample excavated from the Imperial Roman port city of Velia (1st and 2nd century ad ), to contribute to our understanding of health and disease during the Imperial period. Patterns of age‐ and sex‐related bone loss and health at Velia are also compared with other historical samples and to modern clinical data. It was hypothesised that patterns of age‐ and sex‐related bone loss in this well‐represented Roman sample (n = 71) would mirror those reported in modern populations. Differences in the quantity of cortical bone between three age groups (18–29, 30–49 and 50+ years) are significant in both men and women; however, the pattern of bone loss differs between the sexes. Women show a gradual decline in bone quantity beginning in middle age, whereas men only lose bone in old age. However, there are no significant sex differences at any age group in the metacarpal cortical index. These findings suggest the hypothesis should be refuted because significant sex differences, particularly in old age, are an expected hallmark of bone loss in Western populations today. The possible biocultural and gender‐related factors that may have contributed to the observed patterns of bone maintenance and loss at Velia are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Meul Index: A non‐destructive method for estimating the cortical index in skeletal samples

The study of osteoporosis in past populations provides insight into the history and evolution of this condition. The Cortical Index is a relative measure of cortical bone often used for identifying individuals with age‐related bone loss associated with osteoporosis. Current methods of measuring the Cortical Index involve radiography or cutting actual sections of long bones at the mid‐shaft. We propose a new index, the Meul Index as means for estimating the Cortical Index without the use of radiography. Based on a preliminary study of 13 individuals consisting of 9 males, 3 females and one unknown sex, ranging in age from young to older adult, the Meul Index is highly correlated with the Cortical Index (r = 0.903). The proposed Meul Index provides a non‐destructive and inexpensive means for studying age‐related bone loss in prehistoric and historic populations represented by skeletal samples. Our research builds on the recent publication of Silva, A.M., Crubezy, E. and Cunha, E. 2008. Bone weight: new reference values based on a modern Portuguese identified skeletal collection. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. DOI: 10.1002/oa.998. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A distinct region of microarchitectural variation in femoral compact bone: Histomorphology of the endosteal lamellar pocket

Bone is a dynamic tissue, responding locally to differential mechanical loading and systemically to hormonal stimuli. Although the tendency is to consider compact bone a homogenous tissue, regional variations in microarchitecture are known to have quite different properties relating to processes of growth and mechanical loading. Specifically, we investigated an example of microstructural variation of the human, adult femoral endocortex, referred to here as the endosteal lamellar pocket (ELP). The femoral ELP is characterised as a histomorphological meta‐feature, made distinct from general circumferential lamellae by its hemicircumferential lamellar orientation, medial positioning, radially oriented Volkmann's canals and decreased presence of Haversian systems. Our preliminary observations of mid‐diaphyseal transverse thin‐ground sections demonstrate the ELP as a regular meta‐feature of adult human femora unearthed from the Maya archaeological site of Xcambó, Mexico. ELPs were easily identified in 38 of 45 examined individuals. Their size, shape and degree of secondary remodelling were variable. In comparison, ELP lamellae and those originating from the periosteum are divergent, or non‐concentric in orientation. This divergence, along with the ELP's medial position, suggest it forms during growth through endosteal modelling drift. Possible considerations for ELP formation and persistence with age are discussed as well as its implications for the study of bone dynamics during growth and activity. Further research is necessary to quantitatively measure the morphology of ELPs and to identify any co‐variance between ELP characteristics and age, sex or indicators of mechanical loading. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A taphonomic study of bone modification and of tooth‐mark patterns on long limb bone portions by suids

This work presents new taphonomic data on bone modification by suids, including domestic pig, wild and hybrid boars. The intense modification undergone by bones from animals smaller than 100 kg is shown, together with a more moderate modification on bones from larger animals. Both the ravaging pattern (with preferential deletion of cancellous tissue) and the tooth‐marking frequencies are similar to those documented among hyenas and dogs when having primary access to complete bones. A dual‐patterned experimental model consisting of the interaction of humans and suids was also considered. Here it is shown how suid modification of hammerstone‐broken bone assemblages is different from that documented among canids and hyaenids, as experimentally replicated. These results increase the number of non‐anthropogenic bone‐modifying agents and posit new issues on equifinality processes. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone density determination of moose skeletal remains from Isle Royale National Park using digital image enhancement and quantitative computed tomography (QCT)

As part of an investigation of prey vulnerability in Isle Royale National Park, MI, digital image processing techniques were used to enhance original quantitative computed tomography (QCT) film products to detail the processes of bone resorption and reformation in skeletal remains of moose (Alces alces). Integration of these two allied imaging technologies allowed analyses of pixels representing fractions of millimetres of bone. Using regression analysis, linear conversions from the pixel digital numbers (DN) to QCT Hounsfield units (HU) to actual bone mineral density (BMD) values were calculated (r²=0.99), and a scale of pixels per millimetre of bone was determined. The colour-enhanced image revealed quantifiable patterns of density, porosity and asymmetry. In addition, the procedure provided a quick but consistent methodology for evaluating numerous scans. Combining the limited use of a high-demand and expensive medical QCT scanner with a lower cost, readily available digital image processing and analysis system provides a technique for researchers to investigate the bone integrity of individual animals and populations. This method of evaluating bone density has implications for use in determining differential skeletal part-preservation in archaeofaunal studies. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An investigation of cortical bone loss and fracture patterns in the neolithic community of Çatalhöyük,Turkey using metacarpal radiogrammetry

Bioarchaeologists have conducted numerous studies on human skeletal remains using metacarpal cortical bone radiogrammetry. This method allows cortical thickness of the second metacarpal to be quantified. As a sensitive index of bone health metacarpal cortical thickness is evaluated in the context of functional adaptations, growth, ageing and bone loss in osteoporosis, as well as used as a reliable indicator of fracture risk. The focus of this study is an examination of the widely used calculation that expresses second metacarpal cortical bone values, followed by an examination of age and sex-related patterns of cortical bone loss and skeletal fragility fracture in a Neolithic archaeological skeletal sample from Çatalhöyük, Turkey. Using metacarpal radiogrammetry, 49 adult metacarpals (f = 27 m = 22) were examined. Data were collected for size variables, length (L) and total bone width (TW) as well as quantity variables, medullary width (MW) and cortical thickness (CT). These parameters were then used to calculate the widely used cortical index (CI) and two new indices expressing medullary width and cortical bone thickness in relation to length (medullary width index, MWI and cortical thickness index, CTI). The ratios were then used to explore age- and sex-related cortical bone loss and fragility fracture patterns amongst the inhabitants of Çatalhöyük. Çatalhöyük males and females demonstrate an inverse relationship where CTI decreases as age and MWI increase. Analyses indicate statistically significant age-related change in MWI amongst the oldest females. Despite age-related loss of bone, no typical fragility fractures are observed. We discuss the role of ageing and lifestyle factors at Çatalhöyük that may have been beneficial to skeletal health and a reduction in the risk of fragility fracture.     

The relationship of bone mineral density and other growth parameters to stress indicators in a medieval juvenile population

In this study the radii of 34 juveniles from Wharram Percy, a British medieval site, were measured for bone mineral density (BMD) using dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry (DXA) in order to investigate evidence of stress including Harris lines, cribra orbitalia and deficient cortical index, which is usually attributed to poor nutrition. BMD measurements are used in modern children to assess growth and development and generally correlate with linear growth. Only rare chronic illnesses affect bone mineral accrual in children. Radiographs of the radii were examined to assess cortical index and of the femora and radii for Harris lines. The results indicate that BMD is well correlated with dental age and linear growth, but is poorly correlated with cortical index. The variability in cortical index indicates the influence of environmental factors. There is no relationship between BMD and the presence or absence of Harris lines or cribra orbitalia. Thus, despite obvious evidence of skeletal stress in this juvenile population, bone was not under‐mineralised and bone mineral accrual proceeded normally with growth. This reinforces the conclusion that cortical index is a more sensitive indicator of environmental stress than either Harris lines or cribra orbitalia, and may be compared with BMD measurements to assess the effect of stress on growth. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Do environmental disturbances of an individual's growth and development influence the later bone involution processes? A study of two mediaeval populations

Age‐dependent cortical bone loss was studied in two mediaeval Polish populations differing with regard to socio‐economic status, as well as the intensity of the occurrence of skeletal indicators of living conditions in the early stages of ontogenesis (compression of the skull base and the narrowing of the lumbar vertebral canal). Cortical bone loss was analysed on the basis of the radiographs of the second metacarpal. Cedynia population (better living conditions) is characterized by higher arithmetic means for the height of the skull base in comparison with Słaboszewo group (low socio‐economic status). In the case of the vertebral canal index, significant interpopulation differences apply only to men. Similar patterns of difference between groups under study regarding bone loss was also found. It turned out that males from Cedynia had more bone mass in adultus and maturus age categories; in females, these differences concern only adultus category. The study involved an analysis of a relationship between the characteristics measuring reactions to environmental stress in early stages of growth and the intensity of bone loss in adult life. We believe that the results presented justify a conclusion that both phenomena may be interrelated to a considerable degree. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age-dependent cortical bone loss in a medieval population

Age-dependent cortical bone loss was studied in a skeletal assemblage from a British medieval site using metacarpal radiogrammetry. Significant loss of bone was found in the females but not in the males. The magnitude of bone loss in the older females relative to their younger counterparts was found to be similar to that reported for modern European subjects. Low cortical bone was associated with healed fractures of the highly trabecular bone of the axial skeleton, and this observation is suggestive that weakening of the skeleton due to loss of bone substance precipitated such fractures, as it does in modern Western women. The broad similarities between the medieval and modern data may call into question the importance of lifestyle factors in influencing the severity of osteoporosis, at least as far as loss of cortical bone is concerned.     

Age-dependent bone loss in the femur in a medieval population

Age-dependent bone loss in femurs in a medieval skeletal assemblage from Wharram Percy, England was studied. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to measure bone mineral density (BMD) in the proximal femur; radiogrammetry was used to measure cortical index (FEMCI) at the femur mid-shaft. Age-related loss of BMD was found in the proximal femur in both sexes. Females but not males showed loss of FEMCI. Patterning in bone loss with respect to age, sex and site in the skeleton resembled that seen in recent subjects. In this respect the results are similar to those of a previous study of metacarpal cortical bone in the same archaeological assemblage. Given the large difference in lifestyles, and that lifestyle factors are widely held to influence the severity of bone loss in osteoporosis, the similarities between the medieval and modern populations in the patterns of bone loss are surprising. These findings support those from an earlier study of these skeletons in calling into question the role of lifestyle factors in influencing the severity of bone loss in osteoporosis. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Destruction of microstructure in archaeological bone: a case study from Portugal

Sampling of archaeological human bone may not be justified, contrary to former high expectations regarding adult age assessment based on histomorphometry. The alterations in buried bone as a result of bacterial action are readily visible in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). An understanding of the chemical and structural changes to cortical bone requires work at the level of a few microns. This paper reports on problems encountered during analyses of samples of human bone from Mesolithic (ca. 8000 calbp) shell midden sites at Muge in central Portugal, and the methods used to try and overcome these problems. We believe we have shown that these Mesolithic bones are partly comprised of bacterially reprecipitated mineral, which has had collagen removed, with consequent obliteration of bone microstructure. We conclude that microbial destruction of the structure of archaeological bone can be a serious impediment to analysis of the characteristics of the population represented by those skeletal remains. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cortical bone dynamics and age‐related osteopenia in a Longobard archaeological sample from three graveyards of the Veneto region (northeast Italy)

Since the contribution of Brothwell and co‐workers in early 1968, few studies have considered the cortical bone involution in European skeletal series of archaeological interest. The present study concerns the involutive process mechanisms and intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability in femurs of 66 adults belonging to three graveyards of the Longobard era excavated in the Vicenza province (northeast Italy). Cortical thickness and cortical and medullary areas were measured and a correlation matrix was generated for each sex and age class. Intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability were evaluated by two‐tailed t‐tests and a sexual dimorphism index. The results indicate a considerable difference between the sexes, with females showing an earlier and more marked cortical bone loss, as expected. Moreover, comparing the data with the scarce literature available, some discrepancies in cortical bone involution were found in populations with different patterns of adaptation, suggesting the need for further studies in this direction aimed at understanding bone environment dynamics. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Test of the Effectiveness of the Coimbra Method in Capturing Activity‐induced Entheseal Changes

The current paper tests the effectiveness of entheseal changes in expressing activity patterns when the former have been recorded using the new Coimbra method. Changes on the subscapularis and biceps brachii were recorded using the Coimbra method on 78 men from the documented Athens Collection. Generalised linear models were adopted with entheseal changes as dependent variable and cross‐sectional geometric properties, age and body mass as predictors. The results suggest that age is the factor most frequently affecting entheseal changes; however, its impact is not as systematic as found in previous studies. Body mass is rarely statistically significant, again contradicting earlier studies. Finally, activity proxied by cross‐sectional geometric properties is occasionally significant, but no clear pattern emerges that can associate specific entheseal morphological changes with specific directions of mechanical loading. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Concurrent assessment of urban environment and cardiometabolic risk over 10 years in a middle‐aged population‐based cohort

Inference regarding the impact of urban areas on health is limited by cross‐sectional studies assessing few dimensions and ignoring area‐level socio‐economic status. This study simultaneously assessed several dimensions of the built environment against incident cardiometabolic risk (CMR) arising over 10 years. It tested the hypothesis that, accounting for local area relative wealth, features of the built environment would not predict incident CMR. Initially, disease‐free adults in a biomedical cohort in Adelaide, Australia, provided address and clinical data over three waves of follow‐up. CMR was defined as the count of five clinical CMR factors. Built environment measures were derived for urban form, and natural, and food environments. Local area wealth was expressed using the relative location factor index. Poisson growth models accounting for within‐suburb clustering, age, sex, and education were used to estimate associations between built environment measures and increasing CMR. Fitted linear trajectories had statistically significant mean values of intercepts and slopes. CMR trajectories were associated with age, male sex, and low education. In models including measures of the food, natural, and urban form environments, per standard deviation increase, only POS count predicted incident CMR, which was more strongly predicted by relative location factor. Not accounting for local area socio‐economic status may overestimate the strength of relationships between health and the built environment. Inequity in accessible POS is robustly related to incident CMR.     

Well preserved non‐collagenous extracellular matrix proteins in ancient human bone and teeth

Ancient bones in a good preservation state, ascertained by microscopic techniques, conserve extracellular matrix proteins over thousands of years. With new techniques, intact extracellular matrix proteins from ancient bones and teeth are extracted and separated by one‐dimensional and two‐dimensional electrophoresis. Proteins were identified in Western blots by special antibodies against different human extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules of bone. We have confirmed different types of ECM human bone molecules such as osteonectin, osteopontin, and alkaline phosphatase with specific antibodies in human bone samples from different age groups. Additionally, we selected bone samples from different cultural time periods, such as the Middle Ages, the Bronze Age and the Late Pre‐Pottery Neolithic Phase (PPNB), and teeth from individuals from the Early Middle Ages and from the Late PPNB. The survival of intact extracellular matrix proteins in ancient bones and teeth dating from recent times to the Late PPNB, and reliable techniques to identify these proteins, present a great challenge to further research. A Match Set with PD‐Quest 7.2 shows that only 16% of protein spots in the teeth are also found in the bone of the same individual. In combination with the results of macro‐ and microscopic investigation, biochemical techniques will help us in obtaining a better understanding of bone and teeth in health and disease. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sexual dimorphism in diaphyseal cross‐sectional shape in the medieval Muslim population of Écija,Spain, and Anglo‐Saxon Great Chesterford,UK

Differences in adult male and female activity patterns may influence levels of sexual dimorphism in physical dimensions, including the cross‐sectional shape of long bone diaphyses. Previous studies of archaeological populations have demonstrated significant differences in diaphyseal shape between males and females. In this study, dimorphism in external diaphyseal shape of upper and lower limb bones (reflected in indices of external diaphyseal diameters), and bilateral asymmetry in these indices, were examined in two medieval populations: Muslim Écija (Spain) and Anglo‐Saxon Great Chesterford (UK). Attempts were made to relate observed patterns to documentary and other osteological evidence for differences in male and female activity patterns. While few significant differences in upper limb bone cross‐sectional shape were observed in either population, significant differences in shape were found in the lower limb diaphyses at Écija at the femoral midshaft and tibial foramen and midshaft levels, and at the tibial midshaft for Great Chesterford. Comparison with published data suggests that these differences are marked for Écija, and perhaps fairly high for Great Chesterford compared with other populations with an agriculture‐based economy. This is consistent with documentary and osteological evidence suggesting marked gender differences in behaviour in medieval Muslim Spain. No significant differences in bilateral asymmetry were found, but the effects of small sample size cannot be ruled out. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Developmental Osteology of Cross‐bred Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus L. 1758) and the Implications for Ageing Chickens from Archaeological Sites

We document the developmental osteology of a captive population of cross‐bred red junglefowl (Gallus gallus L. 1758) that were slaughtered at known ages from 6 days old until they reached maturity and explore the relationships that exist between bone size, maturity, body weight and sex. In doing so, we contribute to the body of knowledge concerning developmental osteology in domestic fowl, which has previously focussed upon ‘improved’ breeds. Comparison with archaeological material demonstrates that regression equations developed from the study population to determine age from bone length measurements are unreliable, even when samples with similar mean size for adult birds are compared. However, greater understanding of the maturity of domestic fowl more ‘primitive’ than most comparative material available for study is used to assist in the assignation of three age classes—chick, immature and adult—and thus facilitate more nuanced analyses of age‐at‐death patterns in faunal assemblages. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Septic bone changes in leprosy: A clinical,radiological and palaeopathological review

Infective lesions of bone in leprosy are of two types. In the rhinomaxillary syndrome, superficial infective changes in the bones of the maxilla are due to the presence of Mycobacterium leprae. Lytic foci in the medulla or the outer cortical surface may be due to Mycobacterium leprae at the site as granulomatous lesions. The most frequent infective bone changes in leprosy are, however, sequelae of regional anaesthesia and soft tissue ulceration. The bone lesions are due to pyogenic bacteria and the nature of these infective lesions is similar to that in non-leprous conditions. The pyogenic lesions in leprosy are restricted to the bones of the hands, feet and lower legs.     

A comparative experiment in the consolidation of cremated bone

This experiment assessed whether consolidation of cremated remains facilitated cross‐sectioning and grinding, which often are required for microstructural analyses such as the histomorphometric estimation of age and the examination of pathological lesions. Green, bovine femoral diaphyses were cremated at three temperature ranges (346–357°C; 610–755°C; 684–838°C) in an electric furnace and then consolidated with Acryloid B‐72 or Butvar B‐98 using simple brushing and immersion techniques. After consolidation was complete, bone pieces were cross‐sectioned and ground to a thickness of 100–120 μm. Results indicate that specimens treated with Acryloid B‐72 are harder and stronger than Butvar treated and untreated control specimens. Acryloid B‐72 is, therefore, recommended for the consolidation of cremated remains in preparation for microstructural analysis. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Simple(R) Model to Predict the Source of Dietary Carbon in Individual Consumers

Quantitative individual human diet reconstruction using isotopic data and a Bayesian approach typically requires the inclusion of several model parameters, such as individual isotopic data, isotopic and macronutrient composition of food groups, diet‐to‐tissue isotopic offsets and dietary routing. In an archaeological context, sparse data may hamper a widespread application of such models. However, simpler models may be proposed to address specific archaeological questions. As a consequence of the intake of marine foods, individuals from the first century ad Roman site of Herculaneum showed well‐defined bone collagen radiocarbon age offsets from the expected terrestrial value. Taking as reference these radiocarbon offsets and using as model input stable isotope data (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N), the performance of two Bayesian mixing model instances (routed and concentration‐dependent model versus non‐routed and concentration‐independent) was compared to predict the carbon contribution of marine foods to bone collagen. Predictions generated by both models were in good agreement with observed values. The model with higher complexity showed only a slightly better performance in terms of accuracy and precision. This demonstrates that under similar circumstances, a simple Bayesian approach can be applied to quantify the carbon contribution of marine foods to human bone collagen.