Managing,Valuing, and Protecting Heritage Resources in the Twenty-First Century: Peatland Archaeology,the Ecosystem Services Framework,and the Kyoto Protocol

Abstract

This paper argues that the development of the Ecosystem Services framework, which has recently emerged as an internationally recognized framework for valuing ‘the ‘natural capital’ of ecosystems, presents a number of opportunities for heritage management and the archaeological record, arguing that the inclusion of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental ‘value’ within this framework presents an opportunity to incorporate heritage alongside a range of other critical ‘services’. It presents a short case study focusing on the problems facing the preservation of peatland archaeological sites and deposits in situ alongside developments within peatland conservation and restoration initiatives partly driven by the ability of healthy, functioning peatlands to sequester carbon and hence mitigate climate change. It is argued that this drive towards peatland re-wetting may bring both positive benefits and opportunities for heritage management but also presents a number of practical issues, which now require active engagement from the archaeological community.     

On the Causes of Perforations in Archaeological Domestic Cattle Skulls

We have undertaken a preliminary survey of the occurrence of cranial perforations which have been noted on the posterior portion of archaeological cattle skulls. The interest arose from the authors independent encounter with unusually high frequencies of this condition in assemblages from Bruges and Lincoln and the subsequent search for an explanation. A rapid literature survey and direct contact with other colleagues in the field showed that the phenomenon is widespread in European material and represented throughout a range of time periods and geographical locations. It is also clear that a variety of diverse but untested theories have been proposed by various workers in an attempt to explain the condition. A number of possible aetiological factors are discussed in an attempt to establish the most likely explanations. On the basis of this brief survey, which includes the evaluation of additional archaeological evidence from some of the assemblages, it would appear that parasites, tumours and infection can be ruled out as causal factors. Although not clearly established, it is suggested that a congenital or yoking pressure origin is more likely. If this is the case, then the presence of cranial perforations in domestic cattle may provide important information regarding the temporal and spatial spread of a specific congenital condition or yoking practice. Only a wider survey of both archaeological and modern comparative material (including other bovid species) will enable a full appraisal of the yoking versus congenital hypothesis.     

Breadfruit Fermentation in Pohnpei,Micronesia: Site Formation,Archaeological Visibility,and Interpretive Strategies

Fermentation is a common method of processing and preserving breadfruit throughout the Pacific Islands. While these pits are often reported in the archaeological record, they can pose some interpretive challenges. This paper presents an analysis of probable archaeological breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) fermentation pits on Temwen Island, Pohnpei, Micronesia. Using the existing ethnographic record as a guide, I present archaeological and paleoethnobotanical criteria for identifying fermentation features. Architectural and stratigraphic analyses from four excavated pits match ethnographic expectations. Phytolith analysis shows some concurrence in terms of taxonomic data, but is more useful for indicating disturbance specific to building activities. Based on the distribution and size of pits present in the survey area, I suggest that breadfruit fermentation took place as primarily a household level (rather than community level) activity during the late prehistoric and early historic period in Pohnpei.     

Estimation of Age,Growth and Fishing Season of a Palaeolithic Population of Grayling (Thymallus thymallus) Using Scale Analysis

The fish remains sampled from archaeological sites are generally the result of human food refuse; therefore, the study of retrieved fish scales may provide reliable information on the season of capture and on paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental changes. Among Western European freshwater fishes, the grayling, Thymallus thymallus ¸ has the most easily recognizable scales and is a commonly recovered species from Palaeolithic contexts. This study, therefore, is based on the growth pattern analysis of modern and archaeological scales from grayling specimens. The modern specimens were collected monthly in France (n  = 22), Switzerland (n  = 16), Finland (n  = 20) and Sweden (n  = 10). Scale growth patterns were measured using numerical analysis to a high accuracy. The results showed that the archaeological population of grayling is closer to the present Finnish population. Furthermore, the comparison of seasonal growth patterns between current and archaeological European populations demonstrated that graylings were normally captured during the spring at Le Taillis des Coteaux Magdalenian site. This type of approach can be used to understand environmental conditions at a low spatial scale and also to help identify fishing seasons during archaeological periods. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distinguishing nonhuman predation on birds: pattern of damage done by the white-tailed eagle Haliaetus albicilla, with comments on the punctures made by the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos

The study presents criteria to distinguish some of the nonhuman predation on birds whose remains may also be found at archaeological sites. Specifically, it deals with fragmentation patterns of bird bones in uneaten food remains of the white-tailed eagle Haliaetus albicilla and discusses perforations in victims' bones done by the white-tailed and golden eagles. The food remains show very low degree of fragmentation; bones of the pectoral girdle and wing predominate while head and leg elements are poorly represented. The proportion of perforated sterna differs between the two species of eagles and it is suggested that the differences are attributed to the species of prey rather than the way of handling them by the raptors.     

Cranial pathology of Ursus spelaeus ROSENMÜLLER & HEINROTH from Chateau Pignon,Basque Territories (Spain)

A complex lesion, on a skull of a female cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) associated with perforations of the frontal sinus is described. Paleopathological analysis suggests that the lesion is attributable to complex cranial trauma, probably complicated by an infection which appears to have occurred following a fight, most likely with another bear or, possibly, a cave lion (Panthera leo spelaea); at least one of the perforations observed on the skull may have been produced by the canine of a large carnivore. This hypothesis is supported by the frequent intraspecific aggressiveness documented in modern bears, and by evidence suggesting interspecific fights between cave bears and cave lions. The case is discussed in the light of other evidence reported in the literature. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

In situ Preservation Solutions for Deposited Iron Age Human Bones in Alken Enge,Denmark

The rich mass deposition of Iron Age human bone material from the Danish site, Alken Enge, is extraordinary not only from an archaeological perspective but also from a preservation point of view. The main find is situated in a waterlogged, anoxic environment which provides excellent preservation conditions and therefore enables in situ preservation of the human bones. However, major differences in local environmental conditions challenge an in situ preservation of the entire site area as parts of the bone material presently deteriorate. In this paper, a multi-proxy environmental monitoring approach is used to document threats and to suggest the best preservation solution for the archaeological finds, whether in or ex situ.     

Studying the Cannons of Punta Santa Anna,Spain: In Situ Conservation,Promoting Public Access,and Monitoring Iron Corrosion

The 2001 UNESCO convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) encourages and supports projects that would make accessible to the general public underwater cultural sites. Since 2010 the Catalonian Federation of the World Underwater Federation (FECDAS), have been developing outreach activities with the objective of promoting the protection of the UCH among recreational scuba divers. The purpose of this paper is to introduce one such project, the Punta Santa Anna in Blanes, Spain. This project has three objectives: the promotion of UCH to the general public, the in situ protection of this underwater archaeological site, and a case study on iron corrosion processes. FECDAS/CMAS will create an underwater archaeological park where recreational scuba divers will be able to visit some purposely selected archaeological iron cannons. To expose UCH to the general public will potentially affect the integrity of these artefacts. This risks potential damage and so, with the objective of minimizing potential threats, a series of protective measures and a systematic monitoring programme have been planned. The programme is designed to study the relationship between the underwater environment and the artefacts. The aim is to acquire a better understanding of the corrosion processes of iron objects present in marine underwater sites.     

Two 17th-century English factories in North Kanara,Karnataka, India: a historical archaeology perspective

Summary: This article presents historical archaeology evidence for two 17th-century English factory sites located in North Kanara, Karnataka, India. The factories were established in the 1630s by a rival to the East India Company known as the Courteen Association to trade for spices and textiles. Documentary and archaeological evidence for the factories’ foundation, setting and structural form is presented and the broader significance of these principal characteristics considered with reference to the study of later East India Company factory sites in south-west India. The article concludes by assessing the potential for further archaeological investigation of the sites.     

Archaeometry and materiality: materials‐based analysis in theory and practice*

Due to the diversity of contemporary archaeology, the aims and approaches of archaeological scientists and archaeological theorists are often at odds. I suggest that this position is problematic, both intellectually and methodologically, as both groups are fundamentally engaged in the same task: an understanding of past societies through the medium of material culture. This paper offers a review of the intellectual positions of both groups, with a brief discussion of the history of archaeological theory and an appraisal of its current trajectory. I will discuss how and why contemporary theoretical perspectives have fundamentally diverged from the perspectives of archaeological scientists and how the recent theoretical emphasis upon materiality offers a rapprochement between theoreticians and archaeological scientists.     

THE USE OF TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF ENTRAPPED SLAG INCLUSIONS TO ESTABLISH ORE – BAR IRON LINKS: EXAMPLES FROM TWO GALLO‐ROMAN IRON‐MAKING SITES IN FRANCE (LES MARTYS,MONTAGNE NOIRE,AND LES FERRYS,LOIRET)*

Knowledge of the iron trade in ancient times rests on determining the source of the objects recovered during archaeological excavations. Unfortunately, attributing the origin is not always possible using archaeological tools alone. Trace element data of the ore and the archaeological material (reduction and reheating slags, entrapped slag inclusions from the bloom, bar iron and iron blades) from two Gallo‐Roman iron‐making centres, Les Martys (Montagne Noire) and Les Ferrys (Loiret), were determined using ICP–AES/MS and LA–ICP–MS. The results highlight a continuity of composition that makes it possible to establish a link between the initial ore and the semi‐finished iron products.     

The Middle Stone Age of West Turkana,Kenya

Abstract

Research on the origins of Homo sapiens and the development of our species’ unique behavior is focused on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) period in Africa (in comparison with the European Upper Palaeolithic). Although archaeological and paleontological fieldwork in the Turkana Basin in northwestern Kenya has contributed greatly to our understanding of human evolution in Africa, the Basin's MSA archaeological record remains poorly known. We report on a reconnaissance of MSA sites in West Turkana, Kenya, which included known archaeological/paleoanthropological localities at Eliye Springs and Kabua Waterhole (Kadokorinyang). A newly-discovered site, Nakechichok 1 (GdJh 5), preserves MSA tools stratified beneath Late Stone Age assemblages. The MSA lithic artifacts from Nakechichok 1 differ from those known from other MSA localities in nearby regions, and, they expand the known scope of MSA variability in the Turkana Basin, demonstrating that the MSA is not “missing” in this region, but just hard to find.     

Preserving Archaeological Remains In Situ: Three Case Studies in Trentino,Italy

Abstract

The paper presents the results of the restoration and conservation work which has been carried out in three archaeological areas in the Autonomous Province of Trento. The areas, which have been opened to the public for more than ten years, are the open-air archaeological site of Monte S. Martino, Roman Tridentum (an underground site under the historical city centre of Trento), and Fiavé (a pile dwelling site in a peat bog). These areas present very different environmental characteristics and have therefore required different interventions according to their speci?c situation.

In order to reduce maintenance and extraordinary costs, appropriate conservation of the archaeological remains is required. This consists of methodologies of conservation according to the characteristics of the environment; continuous monitoring systems and indirect preventive intervention; and annual maintenance planning.     

The archaeobotany of Indian pulses: identification,processing and evidence for cultivation

Abstract

Pulses are a significant component of traditional subsistence in South Asia. Reliable identification criteria for identifying these from archaeological seed remains are reviewed. The botanical evidence relating to the wild progenitors and their distribution, especially of Indian natives (Macrotyloma uniflorum, Vigna radiata, Vigna mungo) is summarised, including new evidence from primary botanical research. The problem of seed size increase in pulses is reviewed through a focused study on Vigna spp., in which it is shown that seed enlargement is delayed by 1–2,000 years after initial cultivation. The taphonomy of archaeological pulses is considered in the context of crop-processing of pulses, in which an important distinction can be drawn between free-threshing and pod-threshing types. The total archaeobotanical record for pulses in South Asia (India and Pakistan) is summarised and key regional differences are highlighted.     

Quantification and Visualization of In Situ Degradation at the World Heritage Site Bryggen in Bergen,Norway

Abstract

Environmental monitoring at the World Heritage Site of Bryggen in Bergen, Norway, has shown damaging settling rates caused by degradation of underlying archaeological deposits. Measurements of piezometric head, oxygen, and soil moisture content, as well as chemical analyses of water and soil samples are key elements of the environmental monitoring.

Groundwater monitoring and geochemical analyses reveal a complex and dynamic flow through the natural and anthropogenic stratigraphy. The preservation conditions within the organic archaeological deposits are strongly correlated with oxygen and soil moisture content, that are controlled by the groundwater flow conditions at the site. To quantify decay rates, it is thus essential to understand the wider hydrogeological context of the site. This paper presents recent advancements in quantifying decay rates in the saturated zone at Bryggen. The paper also shows that 3D geo-archaeological modelling can contribute to preservation management by visually combining results of geological, archaeological, geochemical, and hydrological investigations. This opens up for improved multidisciplinary understanding of preservation potential, thereby contributing to an improved protection of archaeological deposits in situ.     

Beached Shipwrecks from Channel Islands National Park,California

Abstract

Three shipwreck sites of the 19th century in Channel Islands National Park, California form case studies in evaluating the contribution of beached shipwrecks to maritime and historical archaeology. Two of the sites are consistent with the historically-documented Pacific coast lumber schooners J. M. Colman and Dora Bluhm, but the archaeological record is sparse. Material remains are compared to primary documents, such as original 19th-century construction contracts and insurance classifications, to make a case for the beached shipwreck scatters belonging to these ships. A third site, Comet, presents the other end of the spectrum; its remains have been conclusively identified by historical photographs and the site is a partially-intact hull embedded in the beach sand. This site was also recorded in detail and the formation processes of all three sites were examined to aid in archaeological interpretation.     

Survey Results from Lagos Bay,Portugal

The Projecto de Carta Arqueológica Subaquática do Concelho de Lagos (PCASCL) aimed to locate, identify and protect existing underwater cultural heritage within the district's coastal area. This project was based on a five‐phase methodology which included archival research, assessment, survey and conservation. PCASCL resulted in the discovery of five shipwrecks and several artefacts which were added to the Portuguese archaeological record. This also led to the development of a secondary project which focused on one of the five shipwrecks as well as proposals for an underwater archaeological park in Lagos.     

A double dog burial from San Nicolas Island, California, USA: osteology, context, and significance

Recent archaeological excavations on San Nicolas Island, located off the coast of southern California, revealed the remains of a double dog burial interred sometime during the 13th and 14th centuries. Two carefully laid to rest and possibly sacrificed juvenile, female domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) between the ages of 1 and 6 months were found within a Native American village. Digestive tract residues include burned and unburned fish and marine mammal bone that suggest scavenging behavior or direct feeding by humans. Breed classifications place it between the Short-Nosed Indian dog and the Plains-Indian dog, likely representing a cross between those and other varieties of North American dogs. Comparisons with other dog burials from archaeological sites across southern California suggest commonalities and possible cultural linkages.     

Possible shell beads from the Middle Stone Age layers of Sibudu Cave,South Africa

Recent excavations at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, uncovered an Iron Age horizon below which is a complex 3 m thick Middle Stone Age sequence with post-Howiesons Poort, Howiesons Poort, Still Bay and pre-Still Bay layers. Available OSL ages indicate that the Howiesons Poort occupation is older than 60 ky and the Still Bay older than 70 ky. Here we present the archaeological context and the taphonomic analysis of six Afrolittorina africana, three of which bear perforations, from the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort layers of this site. The single specimen from the latter cultural horizon comes from the lowermost layer attributed to this technocomplex. This and the depositional context of this layer suggest that this shell derives, as do the other five, from the Still Bay occupation layers. Taphonomic analysis of the archaeological specimens based on present day Afrolittorina africana biocoenoses, microscopic examination, morphometry, experimental perforation of modern shells, and a review of the natural agents that may accumulate marine shells at inland sites, indicate probable human involvement in the collection, transport, modification, and abandonment of Afrolittorina africana in Sibudu. If confirmed by future discoveries these shells would corroborate the use of personal ornaments, already attested at Blombos Cave, Western Cape Province, by Still Bay populations. The apparent absence of ornaments at Howiesons Poort sites raises the question of the mechanisms that have led to cultural modernity since it seems to contradict the scenario according to which cultural innovations recorded at Middle Stone Age sites reflect a process of continuous accretion and elaboration interpreted as the behavioural corollary of the emergence of anatomically modern humans.