Chemical composition of architectural plaster at the Classic Maya kingdom of Piedras Negras,Guatemala

Architectural plaster from elite masonry structures at the Classic Maya kingdom of Piedras Negras, Guatemala, is examined. Chemical composition is determined through X-ray fluorescence and compared statistically. Based on this sample, it was observed that any single masonry building was coated with plaster made from a single source of limestone and limestone-based aggregate, but that architectural plaster from different buildings across the site varied in chemical composition. It is concluded that this pattern is best accounted for by a model of rotational labor obligations to the state, with spatially distinct groups being responsible for manufacturing plaster for specific buildings.     

The presentation of research in and under existing buildings

Abstract

Rarely do buildings remain unchanged over long periods. Damage due to the ravages of time, destruction by human violence or natural catastrophes force repairs. In pre-industrial centuries attempts were made to incorporate existing walls into repairs and additions. Since the finished building should give a uniform impression, however, traces of remodelling were rarely visible, usually hidden under a new ‘skin’. Researching and repairing such remodelled buildings often lead to the discovery of earlier remains. Should these new discoveries be kept visible in order to document and to demonstrate the historical process? Reconstruction of pre-existing buildings is less problematic if the later, existing structures are removed, but it is necessary to deal with the lack of simultaneity – one must add to the structures remaining, resulting in mostly hypothetical reconstructions. This problem is illustrated mainly by examples from Ratisbon and Prague. Excavations lead to similar questions – seldom are remains from a single period uncovered. There are usually traces of different successive stages. If the excavation area is open to the sky, the problem is how to conserve what has been uncovered and make it understandable. Excavations and the presentation of their results inside existing buildings pose different problems. Solutions include leaving openings in, or creating room below, the new floor in order to leave earlier remains accessible.     

Re-using ‘uncomfortable heritage’: the case of the 1933 building,Shanghai

This paper opens up a discussion over the processes of forgetting and remembering that occur in the adaptive reuse of quite commonplace buildings that, nevertheless, have been classified as ‘heritage’. For most buildings survival depends upon finding a new economic use once original use has ceased. At this point decisions are also made about what stories are carried forward from the building’s past. The principal case study discussed in this paper is the former Shanghai Municipal Abattoir, a modernist concrete sculpture now branded 1933 Shanghai. The paper delineates how a process of ‘strategic forgetting and selective remembrance’ has been undertaken, negotiating the bloody nature of the building’s past, in its reuse as an upscale commercial venue. Reuse is further considered within the wider frames of a 1920–1930s Shanghai urban branding ‘imaginary’ and as a ‘building of control and reform’ – a category of buildings developed from the eighteenth-century European Enlightenment-thinking. In reflecting upon this negotiation in the heritage making process with potentially difficult past events, we propose the category of ‘uncomfortable heritage’, as part of a wider spectrum of ‘dark heritage’, and conclude with a final reflection upon 1933 Shanghai as a heterotopic space.     

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF THE SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF LOW-COST APARTMENT BUILDINGS

When structural retrofitting of buildings is required due to seismic safety considerations, building owners or government officials are faced with a crucial decision whether to demolish and rebuild their buildings, or retrofit them. Simple decisions based on fixed proportions, such as demolish and rebuild if retrofit costs exceed 40% of the replacement cost, may be misleading. A financial analysis should be carried out considering all the revenues and costs of the building during its life time. A low-cost residential apartment building that has a construction cost of $140/m² is selected in this study to represent the vulnerable buildings in developing countries under seismic risk. Life-cycle cost analysis approach is employed to value the rebuild or retrofit alternatives to compare economically. Economic assessment has been carried out for various parameters. It has been found that the age of the building and the retrofit ratio are dominant parameters among the others. The critical retrofit ratio (percent of retrofit cost to initial construction cost) varied from 25% for 40 year old buildings to 67% for 10 year old buildings. It is suggested that economical decisons should not be made simply by comparing the retrofit costs to initial construction costs.     

BASE-ISOLATION DESIGN PRACTICE IN JAPAN: INTRODUCTION TO THE POST-KOBE APPROACH

Japan has twenty years of experience in designing and constructing base-isolated building structures. Construction has increased significantly since the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake, having reached over 150 annual construction projects. Many new developments and refinements have been made in the material, device, design, and construction of these structures. This paper summarises recent design and construction of base-isolated building structures in Japan, including statistical data with respect to the common usage as well as the number of new projects. It is notable that the size, height, and fundamental natural period of new base-isolated buildings increase steadily with time, indicating that base-isolation in Japan is reaching maturity. Base-isolators and dampers commonly adopted in Japan are also introduced, with emphasis on recent design efforts to enlarge the natural period of base-isolated structures and reduce the lateral forces induced in the superstructure. Basic design procedures are presented, including determination of design earthquake forces, modelling of base-isolation layers, modelling of the superstructure, selection of ground motions, time-history analyses, and performance criteria. A mandated peer-review system, unique for design of base-isolated structures, is also noted. Several characteristic issues in the design of base-isolated structures are discussed: Variation of base-isolation material properties, applications to high-rise buildings, effects of vertical ground motions, and response when subjected to near-fault ground motions.     

Recently Discovered Remains of a Roman Bridge in the River Trent

Abstract

The early Donjon at Langeais is among the best-known early medieval buildings in Europe, but has not been systematically studied; this paper is based on a stone-by-stone record and archaeological analysis of the standing building, and presents an interpretation of its structural and functional history. Three major structural phases have been identified. Most of what remains is original (Phase I); the ruin can be reconstructed as a main block of two floors with two tower-like attachments to the east side, probably linked by a gallery. A date of c. 1000 is proposed, but does not allow definite attribution to Fulk Nerra. Considerations of comfort and convenience were more important to the original design than security, although the building had some defensive capacity, and could have been incorporated in a walled circuit; it may have been an entire residence of a type ancestral to the mature multi-storeyed residential donjon, or have been included in an assemblage of low-level buildings, representing an alternative form of domestic planning. In the later 11th or early 12th century (Phase II), the annexes were reduced and the building deprived of any defensive character by the insertion of ground-floor doorways. The 15th century saw the demolition of the west wall, followed by consolidation of the remains, and other modifications (Phases IIIa, IIIb and IIIc). A combination of archaeological observation, recording, remote sensing and historical research shows that the fortified area extended at least to c.200 m west of the donjon in the 11th century, and contained a collegiate chapel.     

Shear Vulnerability of Historical Reinforced-Concrete Structures

Modern buildings have been characterized by the rapid spread of reinforced concrete as a novel and versatile building material. Within the assessment of existing buildings, the most sensitive structures are those designed in the first half of the 20th century, when the theory of reinforced concrete and the detailing rules were not yet well established. This study considers the issues related to the gradual understanding of the vulnerability at a territorial scale of structural typologies designed only for vertical loads. In particular, the shear behavior of the buildings in the period between 1920 and 1960 is investigated. The shear strength control of the structural elements of an open-air stadium in Southern Italy is carried on according to Eurocode 2, the American Concrete Institute Code, ACI 318R–2008, and a method based on Arslan’s equation. The results are compared with those included in the original calculus report according to the 1930 Royal Decree-Law (RDL 18/7/1930).     

Structural concepts of anastylosis

Abstract

Ancient buildings have been re-erected for more than one hundred years, during which time various concepts concerning the preservation of monuments have been developed. Classical buildings in particular – considered to represent the European cultural heritage – became the focus of fundamental discussions. In order to understand and compare approaches to historic monuments, this paper contrasts ancient and modern building structures. New supporting systems – using modern substitute materials and connecting elements – nevertheless remain weaker than the original structures. From the beginning of the twentieth century until recent years, the concepts of anastylosis have in many cases been determined by what was technologically feasible at the time.     

Discussion on applying trombe wall technology for wall conservation and energy saving in modern historic buildings

Previous studies on modern historic buildings protection have been mainly conducted from the view of building history, culture and aesthetic, but rarely focus on the green building technology and energy-saving. With the increasingly serious crises of environment and energy, it is valuable to research how to carry out ecological protection to effectively reduce energy consumption in modern buildings while ensuring the authenticity and readability of building heritage information.

This article describes a new technical scheme to apply Trombe wall technology for wall conservation in modern historic buildings. The feasibility, key construction technologies and operating conditions in different seasons were demonstrated by an actual case in Beijing. Key findings show that the technical scheme not only protects the skin texture of the wall but also makes full use of passive solar energy. Energy consumption simulation results show that saving energy in winter is significant. Compared with the original building, the total energy consumption of the building that adopted the technical scheme was reduced by 10.77%, the heating energy consumption was reduced by 21.86%, and the cooling energy consumption was reduced by 1.02%. The research findings provide new inspiration and reference for studies on the protection of modern historic buildings, and serve as a technical reference for architects.     

ON THE SEISMIC VULNERABILITY OF EXISTING UNREINFORCED MASONRY BUILDINGS

A large part of the building population in Switzerland is made of unreinforced masonry. For the assessment of the seismic risk the evaluation of the seismic vulnerability of existing unreinforced masonry buildings is therefore crucial. In this paper a method to evaluate existing buildings, which was developed for the earthquake scenario project for Switzerland, is briefly introduced and discussed in more detail for unreinforced masonry buildings. The method is based on a non-linear static approach where the seismic demand on the building is compared with the capacity of the building. In-plane and out-of-plane behaviour are considered. Comparisons with test results from model buildings show that the proposed method suitably forecasts the capacity of a building. Finally, a numerical example of the application of the method to a building in the city of Basel is given.     

The Use of Adobe in the Mormon Cultural Region

The distinctiveness of the Mormon culture region has been described by several authors. One of the items which contributes to this distinctiveness was the widespread use of adobe (sun-dried brick) in relic buildings in the region. The process of adobe making was diffused from Spanish settlements in the American Southwest, and highly modifed by the Mormon builders in the Great Basin. Adobe was initially used in almost all forms of construction because of limited timber for construction and fuel to kiln-dry bricks. Advent of the railroad prompted construction of lines to open coal mines providing a cheap fuel for brickmaking. With low-cost kiln-dried brick, adobe was rapidly replaced as a building material. Thousands of the original adobe structures still remain, however, and constitute an important element in the landscape of the region. Existing adobe structures are normally plastered over, but the distinctive architectural styles associated with the period when most were constructed make them easily recognizable.     

Bolton Castle and the Practice of Architecture in the Middle Ages

Abstract

It is suggested in this paper that our view of the medieval master mason's methodology, in respect of building design, tends to be a partial one; that it represents the ideal, and fails to take account of some medieval architects' inherent empiricism. A good deal is made of comparatively scarce documentary evidence, and of analyses of completed buildings chosen for their architectural coherence. For this reason, perhaps, our perception of the medieval master mason is sometimes too close to that of the modern architect. It is rare to examine a building's construction sequence in attempting to illuminate the subject: Bolton Castle is a building where it has been possible to reconstruct the process of design, and the conclusion drawn from it is that the design was not cut and dried prior to the commencement of building operations; rather it evolved as they progressed. It is shown that, in this, Bolton was by no means atypical and that such cases are a direct result of the medieval mason's craft based approach to his profession.     

Settlement Patterns of Logging Camps in the Great Lakes Region

Logging camps in the Great Lakes States experienced enormous changes between the 1840s and the 1940s. Research discloses an almost infinite variety in logging camp arrangements through time. The various buildings oj a camp sometimes stood side by side, other times they formed an “L” or “I” shape and still others were irregularly arranged. The camp buildings displayed increasing functional specialization through time. In the earliest camps a single building might serve for cooking, eating and sleeping. The later camps typically contained separate buildings to serve each of these functions besides a granary, blacksmith shop, van (store), saw filing shed, etc. Not surprisingly, the bunkhouse and the cookhouse or kitchen were always next to each other, as were the barn or stable and the blacksmith shop. Although the camps gradually increased in size during the pine-river drive era, the largest camps were associated with the hardwood-rail era. There was, however, great variation within any period. Whether a camp was that of a large company, small independent company or jobber largely determined the number of buildings it contained. The bunkhouse, kitchen-mess hall, stables or barns were always the largest structures of a camp. There is little chance that they would be confused with the office, blacksmith shop or any of the other structures commonly associated with logging camps. Structures at jobber camps were smaller than at corporate camps. The influence of different cultural groups, the increasing size of operations, the changing technology of logging and log transportation were among the factors that influenced settlement patterns at logging camps in the Great Lakes Stales.     

Middle east architectural traditions in golden horde mansion construction

The article deals with the largest mansion-type buildings in the Golden Horde towns of the Lower Volga region. These buildings had many rooms and walls made of hard-burned and adobe bricks. A large ceremonial hall was located at the center of the building; vestibule premises were located adjacent to the hall on the northern and southern sides; residential and utility rooms occupied the eastern and the western wings. Golden Horde mansions are compared with the palaces and mansions of China, Mongolia, and the countries of the Middle East. The infl uence of the architectural traditions of these countries led to the emergence of an original building type based both on a typical Western Central Asian layout, and principles of organizing space borrowed from Eastern Central Asia.     

The Influence of Building Attributes on Residents' ‘Images of the Past’ in the Architecture of Salt City,Jordan

This paper presents an empirical study conducted in a small traditional city, Salt, Jordan. An investigation was made to examine residents' ‘images of the past’. The objective was to identify building attributes that influence these residents' images. A survey research design using multiple sorting tasks with open‐ended questions was used to identify these building attributes. The images were elicited through the observation of coloured photographs of a sample of older buildings in the city centre. Images of the past were examined within three content areas: knowledge of the past; date of construction; and character of the past of Salt City. The building attributes investigated were: contour, size, shape, surface quality, signage, visibility, use, and significance. The results of the study suggest that older buildings in the centre of the city evoked similar images of the past focused on public or social buildings along with residential settlement building. Attributes relating to images of the past were original use, date of construction, historic signage, and historic integrity. This study presents an approach for operationalising an image of the past.     

COLOUR SYMBOLISM IN THE PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE OF CENTRAL ANATOLIA AND RAMAN SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION OF RED OCHRE IN CHALCOLITHIC ÇATALHÖYÜK

The use of red ochre in the prehistoric architecture of Central Anatolia has long been recognized. Scholars have often argued that its use in architecture has a symbolic role, and that it has been used in sacred parts of ritual buildings. This paper examines red‐painted buildings in the prehistoric settlements of Central Anatolia. Recently, a building with red‐coloured plastered walls and floors was found in Chalcolithic Çatalhöyük West. The technique of Raman Spectroscopy has been applied to identify the red pigment and results show that it is red ochre, which contains predominantly hematite, Fe₂O₃.     

The Roles of Pit Houses and Gendered Spaces on Viking-Age Farmsteads in Iceland

Abstract

THE SMALL SEMI-SUBTERRANEAN buildings (jarðhús) with slab-built ovens that have been found on many Viking-Age farmsteads in Iceland (late 9th–11th century) have been subject to wide-ranging interpretations, from short-lived, expedient dwellings to saunas, women’s workrooms, the houses of Slavic settlers and in one case a cult building. This paper tests these hypotheses by making a thorough revaluation of pit-house dates, architectural forms, internal structural features and artefacts, and presents new geoarchaeological evidence from the pit house at Hofstaðir, NE Iceland. This lends strong support to the interpretation that they were women’s workrooms, primarily for the production of woollen textiles. Their abandonment in the later 10th and 11th centuries may be interpreted in the light of changing religious beliefs and social structures, the growing importance of homespun cloth as a valuable export commodity, and the rise in status of the women who made it.     

Damage Assessment of Unreinforced Stone Masonry Buildings After the 2010–2011 Canterbury Earthquakes

The sequence of earthquakes that has affected Christchurch and Canterbury since September 2010 has caused damage to a great number of buildings of all construction types. Following post-event damage surveys performed between April 2011 and June 2011, an inventory of the stone masonry buildings in Christchurch and surrounding areas was carried out in order to assemble a database containing the characteristic features of the building stock, as a basis for studying the vulnerability factors that might have influenced the seismic performance of the stone masonry building stock during the Canterbury earthquake sequence. The damage suffered by unreinforced stone masonry buildings is reported and different types of observed failures are described using a specific survey procedure currently in use in Italy. The observed performance of seismic retrofit interventions applied to stone masonry buildings is also described, as an understanding of the seismic response of these interventions is of fundamental importance for assessing the utility of such strengthening techniques when applied to unreinforced stone masonry structures.     

Editorial-Heritage Challenges in the New Century

The paper considers the case of Raffles Hotel in Singapore which has been the subject of a conservation project with a significant element of redevelopment. The circumstances are discussed within the context of heritage tourism in colonial cities and changing approaches to conservation in Singapore. Built colonial heritage exhibits a symbolism which affects how it is presented and interpreted, serving as a tool for nation building and as a tourist attraction. Policies about conservation and use are influenced by these alternative and often contested meanings, while economic imperatives may demand that buildings generate revenue. Raffles Hotel illustrates the difficulties involved in managing and marketing colonial heritage and securing an acceptable balance between commercial and conservation objectives, with possibilities for confusion as a consequence of the combination of restoration, reconstruction and new building techniques employed.The case has a wider relevance which extends to other forms of built heritage around the world and highlights the dilemmas facing those making decisions about how to present the conserved past as a contemporary tourist space.     

Modeling the Seismic Response of Modern URM Buildings Retrofitted by Adding RC Walls

Modern unreinforced masonry buildings with reinforced concrete slabs are often retrofitted by inserting reinforced concrete walls. The main advantages of this technique are the increase in strength and displacement capacity with respect to masonry structures. This article presents two modeling approaches for evaluating such structures: a shell-element model and a macro-element one. The objective is to formulate practical recommendations for setting up a macro-element model using as input the geometry of the structure and results from standard material tests. Structural configurations of masonry buildings, in which the insertion of reinforced concrete walls is an efficient retrofit technique, are also investigated.