Provisioning of the Inka army in wartime: obsidian procurement in Pambamarca,Ecuador

Ninety-nine obsidian artifacts from fortified and non-fortified sites in the Pambamarca region of northern Ecuador were analyzed with XRF to examine patterns of procurement of obsidian by soldiers in the Inka army and by the local Cayambes who were resisting Inka conquest. The results show that the Inkas acquired material from several different sources, a pattern consistent with provisioning by subject peoples in partial fulfillment of labor obligations. The Cayambes also acquired material from multiple sources, although they may not have directly procured material from all of the sources because the external boundary of Inka territory bisected the region of obsidian sources. That frontier may have prevented the Inkas from accessing one source, Callejones, from which the Cayambes acquired some of their obsidian. In addition, the Inkas were acquiring some obsidian from the Yanaurco-Quiscatola source, which had been previously abandoned around AD 1000.     

Salt production in pre-Funan Vietnam: archaeomagnetic reorientation of briquetage fragments

Bronze to Iron Age briquetage found in the northern Mekong Delta has an appearance similar to analogous material from Europe and Asia; however, the orientation in which the briquetage was employed during the production of salt is still under debate. As a consequence of the heating and subsequent cooling of the briquetage during the evaporative recovery of salt, the magnetic mineral particles within the ceramic formed a stable thermoremanent magnetization in alignment with the Earth's magnetic field. It thus becomes possible to find the orientation in which the ceramics were last fired by aligning their recorded archaeomagnetic signal with estimates of the Earth's ancient field direction in Vietnam. The archaeomagnetic directions obtained from 22 samples taken from five different briquetage artefacts are somewhat scattered, but they reveal a consistent orientation and thus the mode in which the briquetage was employed can be reconstructed.     

ANALYSIS OF TILTING AT GOURNIA (CRETE) BY THE REPRESENTATIVE BLOCK METHOD: A GEOLOGICAL—ARCHAEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUE TO ANALYSE HISTORICAL TILTING*

The walls and floors of the Minoan settlement of Gournia (Crete) have retained a perpendicular relationship since their construction between 3650 and 2025 BC. Their present orientation indicates that they were tilted in unison in an east-south-east direction. This was established by the reconstruction of a representative block, of which the side planes and the base plane were defined by the present orientation of the wall and floor remnants respectively. Stereographic projection methods, derived from geological practice, were used to determine the geometric elements and the orientation of the representative block.     

Landscape interpretation with augmented reality and maps to improve spatial orientation skill

Landscape interpretation is needed for navigating and determining an orientation: with traditional cartography, interpreting 3D topographic information from 2D landform representations to get self-location requires spatial orientation skill. Augmented reality technology allows a new way to interact with 3D landscape representation and thereby facilitate the orientation of oneself in respect to the environment to determine goal location. This paper analyses if AR spatial landform improves the learner’s spatial orientation skill measured with the perspective taking/spatial orientation test by paired sampled t-tests. A workshop was conducted with 123 university students (63 treatment group, 60 control group) in which students had to identify locations and routes based on the interpretation of the relief, represented by AR. Results of the workshop showed an improvement in spatial orientation skill of 20.14 degrees average gain in the treatment group. Students who were not subject to the workshop (control group) did not improve their spatial orientation skill. The possibility of using free AR three-dimensional applications and exploit the potential of tablets and smart phones, which are widespread today, makes it possible to design and implement strategies for the development of spatial skills in formal teaching in the scope of Geography in higher education.     

Childhood trauma in the archaeological record

Childhood trauma is an important class of pathology that is only occasionally discussed in the anthropological literature. As palaeopathologists, we usually analyse archaeological collections that consist of adult skeletons presenting healed injuries, with no real clues as to the timing of the associated traumatic events. We believe that with certain types of trauma, it maybe possible to determine if the injury was acquired during childhood. Clinical data show that evidence for childhood trauma is documented in unique patterns of injury that target particular bones, segments of bones, leading to changes in the orientation or alignment of bones. This presentation provides examples of two types of trauma found in an ossuary population from Ontario, Canada. On the basis of the skeletal evidence and clinical data, childhood trauma may be inferred for each example. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

ON THE ORIENTATION OF ROMAN TOWNS IN ITALY

Summary.   Several Roman writers report on the existence of a town foundation ritual, inherited from the Etruscans, which allegedly included astronomical references. However, the possible existence of astronomical orientations in the layout of Roman towns has never been considered in a systematic way. As a first step in this direction, the orientation of 38 Roman towns in Italy is studied here. Non-random orientation patterns emerge from these data, calling for further research in this field.     

An Osteometric Study on the Variation in Orientation of the Lesser Trochanter in an Early Medieval Human Skeletal Assemblage and Comparison with an Individual from the Late Upper Palaeolithic

Anatomical textbooks describe the lesser trochanter in contemporary humans as being oriented posteromedially. In contrast, orientation of the lesser trochanter towards posterior was observed in some human femora from the Upper Palaeolithic, including the femur of a young adult individual from Germany (Irlich 1), radiocarbon dated to 12 500–11 200 bp (calibrated AMS age). The present study analysed the orientation of the lesser trochanter in femora originating from an early medieval skeletal assemblage (Greding, Germany) and compared the results with those for the Irlich 1 femur. Eleven landmarks, four on the proximal femur, four on the mid‐shaft and three on the distal femur, were recorded with a MicroScribe® digitizer and analysed using AutoCAD® 2010 software. Seven angles and five distances were measured. In the Greding femora, significant differences (p  < 0.05) between sexes were found for several linear measurements, while no significant sex‐related differences existed for angular measurements. For some angular variables related to the orientation of the lesser trochanter, the values for the Irlich 1 femur lay outside the range of variation of the Greding specimens, reflecting the more posterior orientation of the lesser trochanter in the Irlich 1 femur. This posterior orientation of the lesser trochanter was not associated with a particularly low degree of femoral anteversion. It is hypothesised that the differences in orientation of the lesser trochanter between the Irlich 1 femur (and other femora of Upper Palaeolithic individuals) and the femora from Greding could basically reflect differences in traction exercised by the iliopsoas muscle during infancy and childhood between the sedentary agricultural population from Greding and Upper Palaeolithic hunter‐gatherers with a mobile lifestyle. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Medieval/Early Modern Alpine Population from Zweisimmen,Switzerland: A Comparative Study of Anthropology and Palaeopathology

To date, anthropological comparative studies from Switzerland are rare. Therefore, this research aims to make a comparison between the alpine individuals from Zweisimmen (ca. 14th–19th), and 17 other rural and urban populations from Switzerland all dating to the medieval and early modern period. An osteoarchaeological analysis was carried out on the rural population of Zweisimmen, consisting of 134 skeletons. For each individual, the arm position and orientation were observed in the field, while preservation, representation, sex, age, stature, trauma and pathologies were recorded in the laboratory. These results were compared with data from published and grey literature in order to gain a better understanding of chronological and regional patterns in Switzerland. A chronological development was observed in the orientation, arm position and use of a coffin, which suggests a change in burial practices and beliefs throughout time. The demographic profile represents a natural mortality; however, children and especially neonates are underrepresented in this sample. Some individuals were buried in groups, suggesting simultaneous burial during a period of increased mortality. The palaeopathological findings suggest that the living conditions in rural alpine Zweisimmen were similar to those of other contemporaneous populations, as well as those living in an urban setting. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Resource depression, climate change, and mountain sheep in the eastern Great Basin of western North America

Strontium, oxygen, and carbon stable isotope analysis may be used in conjunction with archaeofaunal data to identify resource depression by demonstrating that prey were obtained from more distant locations. We use fauna from Five Finger Ridge, a Fremont site in central Utah, to demonstrate that relative abundances of mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) declined during a period of increased summer precipitation. Strontium ratio values from this period indicate that sheep were acquired from different locations than the preceding period. Specimens from this period also show a moderate increase in carbon ratio values, suggesting that mountain sheep were acquired from higher altitudes. Oxygen isotopes do not vary between temporal periods, possibly the result of the countering effects of higher oxygen isotope values associated with increased summer temperatures and lower oxygen isotope values present at higher elevations. Collectively, these data support that there were localized population declines of mountain sheep that may be related to either climatic changes or hunting pressure.     

Disziplinerneuerung und Universitätsreform: Das Ius publicum Romano Germanicum

What caused the reforms which permitted the universities in the Holy Roman Empire to become leading places of scientific communication and mental orientation for centuries? In most cases, outside influences - pressures from governments, princes, scholars, councillors, consistories, or, as we would say today, state and churches - were decisive. But some reforms were the consequences of paradigm-changes within the universities themselves. Such shifts were less likely to originate with faculties concerned with medicine or the natural sciences than with those which were concerned directly with the political community or human societies. This changed only in the nineteenth century, which cannot be dealt with here.     

Characterizing Quartz Artefacts: A Case Study from Manitoba's Northern Boreal Forest

Visual and geochemical analyses of 30 pre‐contact quartz tools from the Churchill River basin of northern Manitoba were used to provisionally assess source provenance based on comparison to local quartz quarry data. The results indicate that tools made from quartz acquired from these quarries were transported and eventually deposited into archaeological sites up to 200 km away. Transport of this quartz, which is of relatively moderate quality, over such distances suggests that stone tool–using hunter–gatherer populations that lived in the Churchill River basin of northern Manitoba were highly mobile. It also indicates that higher‐quality raw materials were unavailable in the immediate area.     

THE ORIENTATION OF ROMAN CAMPS AND FORTS

Summary.   The angles of orientation of 67 Roman camps were determined from their published plans. There was a marked tendency for them to be aligned close to the cardinal points but they were offset from those points by only 28 of a possible 45 angles and of these six occurred in 29 camps, probably because they were set out by making right-angled triangles whose non-hypotenuse sides were in whole number ratios. Twenty-seven forts on the British frontier walls were similarly orientated by only 12 angles, one of which occurred six times. The apparent accuracy of the layouts suggested that the directions of the meridian and latitude were first carefully determined. The use of a limited number of offset angles was probably due to a religious regard for celestial geometry.     

The growth of antinuclearism in New Zealand

This paper explores the transformation of antinuclear opinion in New Zealand into a more durable and structured political orientation. Antinuclear opinion first gripped a large portion of the New Zealand public after that nation's government banned the entry of United States nuclear warships in 1984. At that time, the public rallied behind the government's action. This consolidation effect, however, showed signs of being impermanent by 1986; antinuclear opinion appeared to be on the wane. Surprisingly, by 1989 this sentiment had finned into a more structured attitude, regardless of the fact that the government responsible for the nuclear ships ban had become very unpopular. The youthful cast to antinuclearism in New Zealand suggests that this orientation is in the process of becoming a fixture of that country's political culture. Political socialisation experiences best explain the continuation and growth of this orientation. The database used in this study comes from a series of national surveys—the most pertinent of which are polls conducted in 1985 and 1989.     

The significance of orientation elements in iron age burial customs at Voss: A tentative interpretation

After defining the concept ‘orientation elements’ in Iron Age burial customs and summarising the main theories about the Norwegian material in general, the author considers the material from the district of Voss in Western Norway where the data from the finds is more interesting than usual. She attempts to show that the local topographical conditions have played a much larger role in orientation than has usually been maintained, and further suggests that orientation may reflect a ceremonial pattern determined by religious ideas arising out of the belief in ‘haugbu’ (barrow‐dwellers).     

成本共担与利益共享——旅游开发的利益相关者及其价值取向研究

现代旅游发展理念正在由传统的经济效益导向转向综合效益导向,强调旅游开发的所有利益相关者都能够公平地从旅游开发中受益。本文以利益相关者理论为基础,分析了现代旅游开发过程中利益相关者的构成体系以及各利益相关者所分担的成本、预期的利益,倡导在均衡利益的原则下建立旅游开发的利益分配机制,并提出了实现成本、利益均衡分配的途径,构建起了以利益相关者理论为基础的旅游开发成本、利益均衡分配的基本理论框架。     

MAGNETIZATION DATING AT A MEDIEVAL MONASTERY (TUPHOLME,LINCOLNSHIRE)*

Tupholme Abbey, founded by c. 1166, was constructed of limestone masonry, some of which was reoriented at several times through its history. The limestone progressively acquired a ‘soft’, time-dependent magnetization in the earth's magnetic field—viscous remanent mag-netization (VRM)—that acts like a clock. Although VRM is normally disregarded by geologists because of its ephemeral nature, this remanence is acquired and persists over time-scales that are useful to archaeologists. Successive VRMs were initiated, at different ages of stabilization of the masonry, thus yielding a chronometric curve that allows us to determine, at least relatively, when masonry was installed.     

Incisor labial surface wear striations in modern humans and their implications for handedness in Middle and Late Pleistocene hominids

Over the past four decades several workers have argued that the orientations of striations on the labial surfaces of the front teeth of Middle and Late Pleistocene fossils attributed to Neanderthals and antecedent archaic hominids can tell us something about handedness. These researchers have suggested that such scratches result from stone tools scraping across the incisors during ‘stuff‐and‐cut’ behaviours, and that they reflect directions of hand movements and handedness. In this study, we examine comparable wear features on the incisors of anatomically modern humans to determine whether striation angle may reflect handedness. The teeth from 66 individuals representing four groups with known differences in subsistence practices (Aleut, Arikara, Illinois Bluff, and Puye) were examined. Photomicrographs were made of the maxillary central incisor labial surfaces of all individuals at 56× magnification. These photomicrographs were scanned to image files, and orientations of all visible wear striations were measured using a semi‐automated image analysis procedure. Approximately three‐quarters of all labial surfaces showed a preferred striation orientation. Of those, most had preferred apico‐cervical or vertical striation orientations, independent of cultural affiliation. Few showed the tendency toward diagonally‐oriented scratches expected if handedness is related to scratch orientation. We found no evidence for ‘stuff‐and‐cut’ striations, despite the fact that at least one of the groups studied—the Aleut—are documented to have used this behaviour. In sum, there is evidently no relationship between striation orientation and handedness in the groups studied. It is, therefore, unlikely that labial scratch orientation in Middle and Late Pleistocene hominids reflects handedness if they used their front teeth in a manner comparable to that of any of the anatomically modern groups considered here. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

TRAUMA DELEGITIMIZED: KARL LÖWITH AND THE COSMIC VIEW OF HISTORY

This article uncovers the work of trauma in Karl Löwith's historical thought. Although best known for his critique of the philosophy of history and for the conception of secularization in his 1949 book, Meaning in History, Löwith deepened his positive historical vision in several essays that he wrote in the 1950s and 1960s. From these texts emerges a unique historical orientation, which I call the “cosmic view of history.” This perspective was at once a critique of modern historical consciousness and an embodied corrective to that consciousness, one in which the catastrophes of the twentieth century were relativized and made endurable. In both the origin and structure of this historical orientation and in its textual expression in Löwith's work, trauma is a residual force that links Löwith's language, his experiences, and the postwar context. The role of trauma in Löwith's thought further reveals a process of delegitimization in which historical consciousness and historical events lose their power to determine historical meaning, thus enabling a response to and an escape from catastrophe. This article also explores the significance of this cosmic view of history for contemporary theoretical concerns related to the Anthropocene and its consequences for historical theory.     

The narratives of exclusion and self-exclusion in the Russian conflict discourse on EU–Russian Relations

The article focuses on the interplay of the narratives of ‘exclusion’ and ‘self-exclusion’ in the Russian discourse on EU–Russian relations. Since the late 1990s, this discourse has acquired an increasingly conflictual orientation, whereby the official foreign policy objectives of ‘strategic partnership’ with the EU and Russia's ‘integration with Europe’ are increasingly problematised across the entire Russian political spectrum. In the analysis of the Russian conflict discourse we shall identify two at first glance opposed narratives. Firstly, the EU enlargement has raised the issue of the expansion of the Schengen visa regime for Russian citizens, travelling to Europe. Particularly acute with regard to Kaliningrad Oblast', this issue has also generated a wider identity-related discourse on the EU's exclusionary policies towards Russia. Secondly, the perception of Russia's passive or subordinate status in EU–Russian cooperative arrangements at national, regional and local levels resulted in the problematisation of the insufficiently reciprocal or intersubjective nature of the EU–Russian ‘partnership’ and the increasing tendency towards Russia's ‘self-exclusion’ from integrative processes, grounded in the reaffirmation of state sovereignty that generally characterises the Putin presidency. This article concludes with the interpretation of the two conflict narratives in the wider context of debates around the project of European integration.     

Historical mosque orientation in Turkey: Central-Western Anatolia Region, 1150–1590

The orientation of buildings in the ancient civilisations has been referred to the movements of several celestial bodies above the horizon on characteristics dates (two solstices and equinoxes). However, Muslims have used a sacred direction (qibla) towards Kaaba located in the courtyard in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to pray and to perform various ritual acts in their daily lives since the early days of Islam. Thus, the mosques had then to orientate towards the qibla direction, being indicated by a niche in the focal point of the qibla-wall wherever they were building on the Earth. This article focuses on the mosque orientation in Turkey before the seventeenth century with regard to the astronomical knowledge derived from Arabic sources before Islam, mathematical theory and spherical computation derived from Greek sources and traditions based on the early Islamic period. The mosque orientations are compared to the qibla directions that are used in sacred geography which was determined by the producers of folk astronomy and in the application of the geometric or trigonometric formulae in mathematical astronomy.