汉代刺史制度的演变及特点

汉代刺史制度的建立,是我国古代官僚监察制度的一大创制。它对于封建中央政府加强对地方政府的领导和监督,维护统一的中央集权的封建专制体制,发挥了重要的作用,在汉代封建国家组织结构中有特殊的地位。本文仅就汉代刺史制度的形成、演变及其特点,做一粗浅的论述。一从监御史到刺史刺史制度,做为汉代中央政府对地方政府所实行的一种较为完备、系统的监察制度,有其产生、形成的历史过程。早在战国时期,当县这种地方政府的职能逐步完善,在国家结构中的地位愈显突出的时候,为了加强对县的领导和监督,就有一些国君开始派出官员,对县令长及其行政实行监察。这种监察当时尚未形成为一种正规的制度,各国实行的情况不尽相同,有的是正式的,有的是非正式的。有的国君在县令长周围秘密安插耳目,监视县令长的举动,实行秘密监察。如卫国: 卫嗣君之时,有人于令之左右。县令发蓐而席弊甚,公还令人遗之席,曰:“吾闻汝今     

汉武帝初置刺史部十三州辨析

汉武帝元封五年设立的刺史制度,传统中的观点大多认为按“州”或“州部”派遣刺史,以致出现了许多无法解释的疑难问题。其实,“州”、“部”是两个不同的概念,武帝是将全国除京畿以外的所有郡国划分为十三个监察区域,叫做”部”,武帝应是设立十三刺史部,其中包括有朔方刺史部,但不存在所谓”朔方州”。     

辽代地方监察体制研究

辽代地方监察体制,呈现出层级化特点,存在道、镇、州三级监察区,其中镇级监察区包括府、节镇与次级方镇。道、镇二级监察区,皆由长官兼掌监察,判官作为佐官负责具体监察事务。州级监察区,长官(主要是刺史)仅掌政务,不司监察,由录事参军监察州官和属县。各级监察佐官——判官和录事参军,作为监察事务的直接负责人,对长官也具有监察和制衡的作用,对中央有直达权。各级监察佐官的设置和权责,确保了地方监察职官虽附于行政系统,但仍展现出层级化、体制化的一面。此外,辽代存在临时遣使监察,是对地方三级监察体制的补充,强化了朝廷对镇、州的监控。     

两汉刺史“居部九岁举为守相”考

<正>以刺史监察郡国,是两汉官僚制度中一项重要举措,顾炎武曾誉其为“百代不易之良法”⁽(1))。关于汉代刺史及刺史制度,目前已有诸多讨论。⁽(2))不过其中一些具体规制仍有待辨析,如刺史迁转中的“居部九岁举为守相”问题。这一规定最早见于《汉书》卷八三《薛宣朱博传》:初,何武为大司空,又与丞相方进共奏言：“古选诸侯贤者以为州伯,《书》曰‘咨十有二牧’,所以广聪明,烛幽隐也。今部刺史居牧伯之位,秉一州之统,选第大吏,所荐位高至九卿,所恶立退,     

"异体"监察与西汉刺史制度

西汉武帝元封五年 (前 10 6 )建立的刺史监察制度是“西汉一大优良制度。”(严耕望《秦汉地方行政制度·序言》) 其优良的原因 ,传统上认为刺史秩卑权重 ,就可以保证它有举察之勤 ,无陵犯之衅。清人赵翼说 ,刺史“官轻则爱惜身家之念轻 ,而权重则整饰吏治之威重。”(《陔余丛考》卷二六 ) 清人顾炎武也说 :“夫秩卑而命之尊 ,官小而权之重” ,“秩卑则其人激昂 ,权重则能行大志。”(《日知录·部刺史》)然而我认为 ,刺史制度的优良在于其具有激励与制约的健全的内在机制。一《汉书·百官公卿表》“监御史”条下颜师古注引《汉官·典职仪》及…     

河曲风波

北魏末年,朝廷内部矛盾激化,丞相高欢操纵朝政大权。孝武帝元修不甘心受制,于永熙二年(533年)任命原为尔朱氏的部将贺拔岳到平凉都督关西20个州军事,兼雍州刺史,试图分化高欢集团的势力。贺拔岳到平凉以后,得到部属宇泰及关陇集团的支持,关陇地区除了灵州刺史曹泥投靠高欢之外,其余各州都受贺拔岳控制。     

监察御史为何治不了腐败

在历史上,从秦朝开始,监察系统,就是一个独立于行政体系之外的监督机构,从上到下,独立运作,单独对皇帝负责。监察御史的监察权限不可谓不大,可以不受限制地调查,可以闻风弹奏,无论多么直言不讳,一般都不会受到追究。但是,这样威力强大的监察系统,为何就遏制不了腐败,眼睁睁地看着王朝走向衰落呢？     

锦衣卫监察职能略论

以秘密侦缉为主要手段的锦衣卫监察职能从其诞生伊始就存在,但执行者仅限于行事校尉,且有相应的制度约束。锦衣监察与科道监察具有大体一致的功能,且互相制约,共同组成大明帝国的监察网络,明代的监察体系因此呈现出二元化倾向。由于独立于文官体系之外,士大夫群体始终对其怀有敌意。明中叶,锦衣卫的缉查重点逐渐转移到打击妖书妖言和"捕盗"方面,对文武官员的监察功能让渡给走到前台的东厂。"厂卫"开始合称,锦衣监察逐渐沦落为从属。随着锦衣武官群体出于多重考虑主动向士大夫靠拢,以及士大夫子弟不断通过恩荫等途径进入锦衣卫并成为各级军官岗位的主要把持者,明中后期部分士大夫试图通过强化厂卫秘密监察手段以打击官僚贪腐的努力未能奏效。明末,东厂系统亦出现放弃监察百官,主动向锦衣卫"捕盗"靠拢的现象。厂与卫主动放弃监察职能是明帝国行将灭亡的一个反映。     

试论唐代都督府与州的关系

唐代,都督一般兼任治所州的刺史,出现了都督、刺史两个长官合一的现象.在这种情况下,都督府与治所州政府之间的关系存在两种形式:一种形式是都督府与治所州政府之间是合署办公的关系,两套僚属机构合并;另一种形式则是都督府与治所州存在着都督府官员与州级官员两套僚佐系统,这两套系统虽拥有一个长官,但并不是合署办公,而是相对独立,互不统属.都督府与其属州是上下级的统属关系,具体表现在上下级行政关系、对属州的监察职能以及军事管理职能等三个方面.随着唐代都督府的名存实亡以及藩镇的崛起,都督府与属州之间的行政统属关系变得越来越微弱,但是这种都督府统属数州的体制直接影响到唐后期的藩镇统属属州的体制.     

《唐刺史考全编》补订——以《西南大学新藏石刻拓本汇释》为中心

利用《西南大学新藏石刻拓本汇释》所载墓志中的唐代刺史资料,对郁贤皓著《唐刺史考全编》所载唐代刺史系年进行订正,对其漏载唐代刺史进行补充,共订正四十八则。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

The Chemists' Style of Thinking

Der Denkstil der Chemiker. Der Aufsatz diskutiert die Tragfähigkeit des Begriffes “Denkstil”, wie er von Alistair Crombie eingeführt und Ian Hacking aufgegriffen wurde, für das Verständnis dessen, wie das Fach Chemie historisch seine Identität ausgeprägt hat. Obwohl weder Crombie noch Hacking den Begriff “Denkstil” in Bezug auf einzelne Disziplinen verwendet haben, erscheint im Fall der Chemie seine Anwendung besonders vielversprechend, weil er hier hilft, ein zentrales Problem zu thematisieren – nämlich die Frage, wie es Chemikern trotz wechselnder Gegenstandsbereiche und theoretischer Umbrüche gelang, eine eigenständige und stabile Identität auszubilden. Nach einer Einführung in den Begriff “Denkstil”, argumentiert der Aufsatz, dass die Beständigkeit der Chemie als eines Faches wesentlich in ihren Laborpraktiken gründet, die ihrerseits wiederum die spezifische Art der Fragen bestimmten, die Chemiker in ihren Forschungen stellten bzw. die Form der Antworten, nach denen sie suchten. Folgende Merkmale kennzeichnen diesen “chemischen Denkstil” (1) eine spezifische, im Herstellen begründete Form des Wissens, (2) die Befassung mit einzelnen Stoffen und Materialien statt mit Materie im Allgemeinen und (3) eine Beobachtung von Natur besonders im Hinblick auf Transformationsprozesse. The Chemists' Style of Thinking. This paper discusses the relevance of the notion of “styles of scientific thinking” introduced by Alistair Crombie and revisited by Ian Hacking, for understanding how chemistry shaped its identity. Although neither Crombie nor Hacking applied this notion to individual disciplines, it seems appropriate to use it in the case of chemistry because it helps to address a puzzling issue: how did chemists manage to shape an identity of their own, despite shifting territories and theoretical transformations? Following a presentation of the notion of style, I will argue that the stable identity of chemistry is rooted in laboratory practices, which determined the specific questions that chemists put to nature as well as the answers to their questions. The “chemical style of thinking” is characterized by i) a specific way of knowing through making, ii) the concern with individual materials rather than matter in general and iii) a specific commitment to nature.