产业联系与外资溢出效应-对浙江省制造业的实证研究

本文探讨水平联系、前向联系和后向联系对外商直接投资溢出效应的影响。利用浙江省制造业数据,通过实证分析发现,浙江省制造业外资总体上具有水平负向溢出效应,同时通过后向联系产生正向溢出效应。水平负向溢出效应主要是外资企业带来的激烈竞争所导致的,产业后向联系产生的正向溢出效应主要通过外资企业的本地采购发生。浙江省内资制造业企业并没有从购买外资企业中间投入品而显著提升效率。     

Multinational Corporations and Patterns of Local Knowledge Transfer in Costa Rican High‐Tech Industries

Over recent decades, governments in industrializing countries have promoted policies to attract foreign investors, anticipating the benefits of technology transfer to host economies. During the 1990s, Costa Rica adopted an industrialization strategy based on attracting high‐tech multinational companies (MNCs). Using an original survey of a sample of high‐tech MNC subsidiaries, this article shows that the new wave of efficiency‐seeking subsidiaries tend not to transfer knowledge to domestic firms even when they establish backward linkages with them. Instead, most of the knowledge transfer occurs between high‐tech foreign subsidiaries. This has clear policy implications for host country governments.     

Understanding Technology Development

There are wide variations between the developing countries in the capabilities of their enterprises to import, utilize and improve upon industrial technologies. It is important for the purposes of industrial policy to understand why these differences exist and how industrial capabilities may be improved. This article presents the findings of recent research into the nature of capability development and the role of government policies in promoting such development. The process of becoming efficient in industry is very different from the usual textbook portrayal, in which firms costlessly access and absorb new technologies. In reality, there is a long and uncertain learning process involved, differing with the nature of the technology, the efficiency of factor and product markets, and the provision of various technological information and services from the infrastructure institutions. There is a widespread risk in developing countries that all these markets suffer from failures: the scope for technology development policies rests on the need to remedy these failures. The experience of the most successful newly industrializing economies (NIEs) suggests that well-designed interventions, both selective and functional, are needed to promote technology development. Experience clearly shows the dangers of government failure, but it is necessary to retain a large role for the government if industry is to succeed. The pattern and implementation of interventions have to be very different. This article points out the outlines of economically desirable interventions.     

CONSIDERING THE SOURCE: DOES THE COUNTRY OF ORIGIN OF FDI MATTER TO ECONOMIC GROWTH?*

ABSTRACT It has long been surmised that firms controlled by different countries may have unequal effects on the host economies in which they locate. By looking at the seven major source countries of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the United States, we provide empirical evidence that the state growth effects of FDI differ by source country. We attribute these differential growth effects to the relative differences in factor endowments between the source country and the state. The implication of this result is that technology transfer, believed to be the engine of economic growth, becomes more costly the more dissimilar the endowments.     

U.S. and Japanese Foreign Direct Investment in East Asia: A Comparative Analysis

East Asia has led the world in economic growth and export expansion in recent decades. The phenomenal rate of economic growth among the so‐called “four little tigers”—Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan—enabled them to achieve newly industrializing country (NIC) status in the 1980s, followed by Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. Earlier studies explained the development from the government‐led development paradigm, or the so‐called the statist approach. Scholars also argue that foreign direct investment (FDI) played an important role in the economic development, thanks to technology transfers. Kojima and Ozawa and later Kohama, however, argue that Japanese FDI help East Asian economies while U.S. FDI do not because Japanese technology transfer practices are appropriate for East Asian countries but not the United States'. Thus, we revisit the issue of East Asian economic development and test the economic effects of FDI from the United States and Japan. Using a Barro‐type growth model, we test the effects of FDI from the United States and Japan on economic growth in East Asian NICs. We find that FDI from both the United States and Japan helped economic growth in the “four little tigers,” but not in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.     

Can Host Innovation Systems in Late Industrializing Countries Benefit from the Presence of Transnational Corporations? Insights from Thailand's Manufacturing Industry

Innovation systems in late industrializing countries are said to be ill-developed and fragmented, lacking crucial key resources and access to technology and knowledge. At the same time these national innovation systems (NISs) host subsidiaries of transnational corporations, which could contribute to the development of the NIS due to their advanced technology and capabilities. This paper considers data from innovation surveys, self-assessment of technological capabilities and qualitative interview information in order to establish two things: firstly, the technological activities and capabilities of foreign affiliates and domestic firms in Thailand (as compared to Singapore, Penang and Europe), and secondly, the main mechanisms by which foreign affiliates foster upgrading in domestic firms and in the innovation systems themselves.     

Patterns of Foreign Direct Investment in Mongolia, 1990-2003: A Research Note

This paper delineates the pattern and structure of foreign direct investment (FDI) in a land-locked transition economy, Mongolia, situated strategically between Russia and China. The assessment is based on publications of major international financial institutions, official statistical publications of the Mongolian Government, and a unique dataset of 1,035 FDI firms based on a database compiled by the Mongolian office of the World Bank. A structured analysis of the dataset and government statistical publications makes it possible to ascertain patterns with respect to FDI country origin, sectoral composition, mode of entry, firm capitalization, composition of foreign and local partners, entry date, and location of the investment (core versus periphery). Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: E60, F21, P33. 5 figures, 3 tables, 34 references.     

External Leveraging and Technological Upgrading Among East Asian Firms in the US

This paper examines the innovation strategies driving Asian firms' investment in the US based on the resource-based model of knowledge. Specifically, it is shown that Asian firms' competitive advantage revolves around their ability to capture rents through a series of technological and marketing capabilities that collectively constitute the firms' knowledge resource base. The process of learning is documented by shedding light on the major sources of knowledge acquisition that enhance technological capabilities internally and externally. Specifically, this empirical research, based on a large-scale quantitative survey of Taiwanese, South Korean, and Singaporean firms in the US that was conducted between 2003 and 2004, shows that the firms in industrializing Asian economies (henceforth the IAFs) are directly investing in the US and setting up R&D operations there to acquire knowledge that enables them to become more innovative. A variety of technology sourcing strategies practiced among these IAFs was found, depending on their firm-specific variables (e.g. size and sector) and their prior technological capabilities. The types of technology and knowledge sources also go beyond conventional technological know-how to embrace the entire production chain from manufacturing technologies to expertise in marketing and distribution.     

Does Spatial Clustering of Foreign Direct Investment Foster Global Production Networks? The Case of Qingdao,China

This article examines how spatial clustering of foreign direct investment (FDI) can foster a global production network (GPN). The cluster concept, in general, stressed inter-firm relations between local and regional firms while neglecting global–local linkages in the spatial context. In contrast, GPN focuses on the advantages of international production organization and governance structure but underestimates regional or localized channels of production arrangement. By integrating the conceptual framework of spatial clustering of FDI and GPN, this paper provides empirical evidence of various channels to knowledge and innovation transfer between domestic firms and foreign-invested enterprises. This paper demonstrates that the different types of linkages formation are key determinant factors for establishing cluster through contributing to local economic development.     

Transnational Corporations,Industrial Policy and the ‘War of Incentives’: The Case of the Argentine Automobile Industry

In the context of intensified internationalization of production, automobile firms in Argentina face a profoundly different structure of incentives to the prior decades of import substitution industrialization. Recent policies in the Argentine auto industry have been aimed at a recovery through a reorientation towards exports. Two initiatives set the context for changes during the 1990s: an industry–government–labour agreement and the implementation of a commercial partnership with Brazil. The dramatic recovery of the sector is an apparent validation of the policies implemented. This article questions this recovery by drawing on case‐study work at a number of auto plants and components suppliers. The effects of these policies on changes in the structure of production and industry and on externalities supporting domestic firms are examined. Lessons are drawn for the role of government policy in supporting the contribution of transnational corporations to domestic technological and organizational development.     

The wider effects of inward foreign direct investment in manufacturing on UK industry

This paper examines the wider effects of inward foreign directinvestment (FDI) to the UK on improving the practices and competitivenessof domestic industry. Surveyed domestic suppliers, competitors,and customers to foreign investors reported extensive positiveimpacts on their practices, focused particularly on reductionsin X-inefficiencies, and on their competitiveness, althoughin the case of competitors benefits had to be balanced againstadverse effects. Knowledge transfers through personal contactsand the demonstration effect, were important to the transmissionof impacts, but a number of other channels were also important,including additional supplier sales, improved customer inputs,and the competitive spur. Regional policymakers should takethese wider benefits into account in the design of policiesfor attracting and embedding foreign investment. However, whilstthere was no evidence that foreign firms in assisted regionshad fewer benefits than those in core regions, there was a lotof leakage outside of the areas attracting foreign firms, suggestingthat policies to promote spillovers should not be developedentirely in a local or regional framework.     

Inter-Firm Linkages and Regional Impact of Transnational Corporations: Company Case Studies from Shanghai, China

By undertaking two company case studies in Shanghai, this article reveals that the actual regional impact of direct investment from TNCs is much greater than FDI data themselves may indicate. Such impact extends far beyond foreign invested enterprises (FIEs) as well as the invested regions. The joint venture with the local side controlled by a regional government tends to have fewer suppliers from other regions than the other with the local side owned by a state ministry. Through the extensive linkage networks with FIEs, industrial growth, technology transfer, management improvement and job creation have been indeed spread over many domestic enterprises. The government in the relevant region should employ proper measures to develop these linkages, especially in regions that have difficulties in attracting TNC investment. The two companies studied mirror the general situation in the automotive and the electronics industries, respectively. Further study on the indirect supply linkages with FIEs appears inviting.     

Agglomeration,foreign firms and firm exit in regions under transition: the increasing importance of related variety in Hungary

ABSTRACT

Related variety of economic activities is widely recognized to induce regional development; however, it is not clear how this mechanism takes place in regions that go through major structural and institutional transformation. Furthermore, foreign direct investment (FDI) is typically a major source of structural change in these areas; and we still need a better understanding on how foreign-owned (foreign) firms affect the dynamics of domestic-owned (domestic) companies. For these reasons we analyse firm-level exit in Hungarian city regions between 1996 and 2011, over the late post-socialist transition in manufacturing industries, focusing on the difference between foreign and domestic firms. Introducing ownership into the related variety calculation, we estimate the probability of firm exit with the region-level related variety calculated separately for foreign and domestic firms. Our results suggest that related variety of foreign firms decreases the probability of domestic firm exit earlier during the economic transition compared to the related variety of domestic firms. This finding supports the idea that FDI plays a formative role in regions under transition, and shows that domestic firms benefit from being in agglomerations where foreign firms are technologically related to each other.     

Evaluating Government Technology Transfer

The national laboratories are a reservoir of scientific and technological talent that can help America to compete in international markets.… Spurred in the past decade by new legislation and enlightened policies, the national laboratories have greatly expanded efforts to transfer federally-funded inventions and technology to private industry.
Alan Schriesheim (Director, Argonne National Laboratory), "Toward a Golden Age for Technology Transfer," Issues in Science and Technology, Winter, 1990–91, p. 52.
Although Congress adopted several laws in the 1980s to encourage the commercialization of federal laboratory technology and to promote technology transfer from the federal laboratories to the private sector, collaboration between laboratories and industrial firms has been modest at best.
Erich Bloch, Toward A U.S. Technology Strategy, Washington, DC: National Academy Press, February, 1991, p. 22.     

Export-led Technology Development in the Four Dragons: The Case of Electronics

To date, little attention has been paid to the strategies of local firms in bringing about industrialization in Bast Asia. This article focuses on the methods by which domestic firms utilized foreign connections to overcome technology and market barriers in electronics. A simple market-technology model is developed as a first approximation of how domestic technology assimilation relates to export marketing in the four ‘Dragons' of East Asia (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore). It proposes that export demand shaped the pace and pattern of technological progress in electronics in each of the four Dragons. Historical evidence shows that each country used a distinctive mix of direct and indirect export mechanisms to acquire technology and to enter international markets. Foreign buyers, transnational corporations (TNCs), original equipment manufacturer (OEM) arrangements, joint ventures and licensing deals were exploited by ‘latecomer’ firms to their market and technology advantage. Asian firms progressed from simple assembly tasks to more sophisticated product design and development capabilities, travelling ‘backwards' along the product life cycle of traditional innovation models. Today, leading Asian firms invest heavily in R&D and engage in partnerships with TNCs to acquire and develop advanced new electronics technologies. The technological progress of latecomers remains closely coupled to export demand through OEM and other institutional arrangements.     

Economic statecraft in China's new overseas special economic zones: soft power,business or resource security?

China's rapidly growing economic engagement with other developing countries has aroused intense debates, but these debates have often generated more heat than light. The Chinese government is clearly pushing its companies to move offshore in greater numbers, and state‐owned firms figure prominently in many of the major investments abroad. Yet relatively little research exists on when, how and why the Chinese government intervenes in the overseas economic activities of its firms. China's state‐sponsored economic diplomacy in other developing countries could play three major strategic roles: strengthening resource security, enhancing political relationships and soft power, and boosting commercial opportunities for national firms. This article examines China's programme to establish overseas special economic zones as one tool of Beijing's economic statecraft. It traces the process by which they were established and implemented, and investigates the characteristics of the 19 zones initially selected in a competitive tender process. The article concludes that even in countries rich in natural resources, the overseas zones were overwhelmingly positioned as commercial projects. Particularly in the Asian zones, China is following in the footsteps of Japan. The zone programme, and the Chinese foreign investment it hoped to foster, represents a clear case of the international projection of China's developmental state. However, in Africa (but not generally elsewhere) discourse surrounding the zones publicly positions them as a transfer of China's own development success, thus potentially enhancing China's political relationships and soft power on the continent.     

台商投资大陆地区的区位选择及其空间拓展研究

台商在大陆地区已经有三次大规模的投资热潮,每次热潮都有不同的产业特性以及相应的区位偏好,从而导致在大陆地区规律性的空间拓展。本文在分析台资在大陆地区空间拓展特征的基础上,就台资转向大陆以及在大陆地区空间拓展的原因展开分析,认为台资企业在全球范围内的发展战略与其对外投资的区位选择密切相关。同时,大陆地区台资在当地化的嵌入程度也是影响其企业发展战略的一个重要因素,从而影响台资的空间扩展路径。     

Promoting Innovative Clusters through the Regional Research Centre (RRC) Policy Programme in Korea

This article deals with government policies to promote innovative clusters in which firms and related supporting institutes closely interact and stimulate the innovation process. It argues that the Korean government has taken various types of policies in the process of developing clusters. The Regional Research Centre (RRC) policy programme and the Semiconductor Equipment Research Centre (SERC) of Hoseo University are case studies. The RRC programme aims to establish a regional research network among research agents having a common interest in regionally specialized technologies, and to strengthen their technological capability. The SERC, established in 1996 as one of the RRCs, has played a successful role as the government intended. The local business environment wherein user firms and suppliers were scattered and fragmented was greatly improved as the result of the active role of the SERC.     

Netflix: Canadian (Dis)Content. Competing Sovereignties and the Cultural Politics of Cultural Policy

Netflix has gained significant attention in Canada because it exemplifies the challenge posed by digital technology to Canada’s long-standing cultural policies. It is increasingly evident that such policies are limited in their ability to encourage foreign investment while safeguarding Canadian cultural expression. Indeed, the policies proposed thus far have generated “Canadian discontent” across the political spectrum, notwithstanding their promised benefits. This article uses Netflix to explore the cultural politics of cultural policy: the historical and political underpinnings that drive ongoing discussions about state intervention in culture. These politics include the debates about the effect of foreign investment on Canadian cultural sovereignty, and the ideological tensions within the notion of sovereignty itself, namely those between state and consumer and between center and periphery. Using a historiographical approach, this article investigates the controversy surrounding recent government responses to the disruptive force of foreign digital multinationals, such as Netflix.     

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND URBAN CONCENTRATIONS: UNBUNDLING SPATIAL LAGS*

ABSTRACT Foreign direct investment (FDI) is seen as a way to import technology and catch up with economic leaders. It is therefore important to understand why some countries attract more investments by multinationals than others. We expand the set of common determinants of FDI with urban agglomerations and ask the question whether the accessibility of market potential and the number of potential investment locations, in the shape of urban concentrations, matters, since the importance of urban agglomeration economies for FDI has not been investigated before. We show that countries with several medium‐sized cities attract more foreign investment, especially if they are close to main agglomerations, but too much concentration (primacy) reduces the inflow of FDI. Moreover, we unbundle spatially lagged FDI by including spatial lags of the determinants of FDI. It is important to disentangle such third‐country effects in order to understand how FDI flows depend on the complex ways in which multinationals fragment sales and production across countries. Using a panel of U.S. affiliates’ sales in foreign countries between 1984 and 1998, we find evidence that cities are important drivers of FDI. Furthermore, third‐country effects suggest that horizontal and complex forms of FDI coexist.