评美国对九一八事变和一二八事变的态度——兼析“史汀生主义”的提出及局限性

众所周知,在1941年12月太平洋战争爆发前的整整10年里,美国政府对日本侵华采取了可称之为“史汀生主义”的立场,即:既不承认日本侵华行径及其后果的合法性,又不采取果断有效的措施从根本上制止侵略。这是包含了某些积极因素的消极立场。史汀生主义是1931年九一八事变后提出的,在一二八事变后又加以某些补充。分析美国政府对九一八事变和一二八事变的态度,有     

意识形态在美国对华外交政策中的运用与中国应对

冷战结束以来,中美关系起伏不断,可谓一波三折。通过分析美国对华外交政策的演变,我们发现,阻碍中美关系健康发展的因素除了国家利益外,还有意识形态。冷战结束后,美国对华外交政策中意识形态因素不仅没有淡化或终结,相反在某些方面或在某种程度上有强化的迹象。可以说,意识形态在美国对华外交政策中发挥着一种特殊而微妙的作用,是影响美国对华外交政策的重要因素,是制约中美关系健康发展的瓶颈。     

"九一八"事变后日本"亚洲主义"意识形态的政策化

近代日本的“亚洲主义”并非一定以对抗欧美为根本目的,因而它与所谓的“协调主义”路线之间并不存在绝对的对立。这意味着“亚洲主义”意识形态的政策化存在着可能性。尤其在“九一八”事变之后的特殊历史背景下,它自下而上,由日本陆海军、外务省等各分支机构到最高首脑决策,经历了一个逐渐向外交国策渗透发展并最终讨论成型的复杂过程。可以说1933年斋藤内阁“五相会议”所制定的《外交方针》正是其政策化的典型表现。该方针将“协调主义”作为辅助手段,明确宣布今后日本的国策在于“实现帝国指导下日、满、华的提携共助”。这意味着“不放弃协调主义的亚洲主义政策”在当时已告形成。     

查尔斯·比尔德的美国外交史学述论

对美国外交史的研究是查尔斯·比尔德史学成就的重要组成部分。他对美国历史上的国家利益观念及其实践进行了梳理和归纳,得出了国际主义外交路线与美国国家利益相悖的结论。在此基础上,他提出了"大陆主义"的国家利益观和外交路线,主张放弃国际主义和干涉主义,专事"国内门户开放"。源于对美国宪政民主制度遭到破坏的担忧,比尔德对富兰克林·罗斯福的外交政策大加挞伐。比尔德的外交史学开创了美国外交史学的进步主义传统。知识论层面的宏观性和意识形态层面的激进性,是比尔德进步主义外交史学的两大特征,并赋予其纯粹学术研究之外的广泛社会意义和现实意义。     

寻求主导:日本与承认中华民国问题(1912—1913)

获得国际承认是中华民国建立后面临的首要外交问题。各国均利用机会,以承认中华民国为砝码,企图其他问题的解决。其中日本就将承认中华民国同"满蒙问题"、贷款问题结合起来,形成了以承认问题为核心,开展对华外交的局面。在中华民国的承认问题上,日本积极谋求其主导地位,并企图通过这一主导地位实现承认问题、贷款问题、"满蒙问题"的一并解决。但由于中国的抵制,更由于该外交政策本身依赖列强的协调,随着远东地区国际格局的变化,特别是美国、德国对日本主导地位的挑战,使日本在承认问题上外交受挫。由此,进一步促使日本逐渐放弃列强共同行动的原则,越来越倾向于对华单独行动,这对日本外交的走向产生了重要影响。     

美国的冷战意识形态:内容与作用

冷战时期的美国外交政策受到由下列三套相互联系的观念构成的冷战意识形态的深刻影响:建立在自由主义基础上的反共主义和输出民主的理想;从民族主义衍生出来的国家伟大、全球责任和(自由)世界领袖信念;源自种族主义的东方主义偏见和文化等级观念。正是美国的冷战意识形态把美苏冲突建构成自由与极权两种生活方式之间的斗争,使冷战超越单纯的地缘政治争夺变成争夺人心的较量,冷战在某种意义上是美国的意识形态工程。     

朝核谈判美方底线

朝鲜10月9日进行核试验,引起举世震惊。在联合国决定对朝鲜实施制裁之后,有关各方决定重启朝鲜半岛核问题六方会谈。但是,各种疑问和猜测仍然牵动着人们的神经:朝核问题将向何处发展?即将举行的六方会谈能否解决当前的危机?美国有没有可能承认朝鲜的“核国家”身份?如果新一轮六方会谈失败,美国会不会对朝鲜实施军事打击?……此外,美国民主党掌控参众两院后,布什政府的对华外交政策是否会受到影响?中美关系真的将再次面临考验?在美国对华决策上,谁拥有更多的发言权,是国务院还是五角大楼,抑或是国会?美国如何看待当前陷入混乱的台湾局势?谁会接替辞职的前常务副国务卿佐利克,主管对华事务?……这些疑问,只有参与处理以上问题的核心人物才能给出权威答案。为此,本刊专访了克里斯托弗·希尔——美国国务院主管东亚和太平洋事务的助理国务卿、六方会谈美国方面的首席代表。     

美国对德绥靖的“韦尔斯计划”

本世纪80年代以来,国内关于美国对德绥靖政策的研究逐渐深入,主要集中于“史汀生主义”的性质、30年代的孤立主义及“中立法”、美国与慕尼黑阴谋的关系、以及珍珠港事件的原因等方面。但事实上在1938年英、法与德国签订《慕尼黑协定》之前,美国也曾酝酿过对德绥靖方案,甚至由副国务卿萨姆纳·韦尔斯制定了具体的实施计划,只是由于各种原因,罗斯福最终放弃了这项计划。本文拟对这一问题进行初步探讨。     

美国对华移民政策的演变及其影响

作为一个移民国家,美国历来重视移民的“质”和“量”,因为移民决定着美国的国际竞争力和未来发展空间。200多年来,美国对华移民政策不断演变,但无论是禁止还是有限度地开放,都是在为美国的国家利益服务。对外来移民的政策是美国国内各个利益集团博弈的结果,也受一定时期美国政治、军事、外交政策和种族主义思潮的影响。美国对华移民政策调控着赴美华人的人口数量和人口构成,间接地影响着在美华人的职业结构、地理分布、居住模式及经济、政治、社会地位等各个方面。     

归去来兮凯恩斯——“凯恩斯主义”盛衰演变与现代资本主义经济周期的关系初探

50— 60年代 ,为解决严重的生产过剩危机 ,“凯恩斯主义”风靡西方世界。凯恩斯经济学的实施 ,导致了新的通货膨胀危机 ,70年代后凯恩斯经济学悄然退场 ,各色“新自由主义”经济学一度回潮。80年代末、90年代初 ,高失业率和生产停滞重新成为美国等西方国家的主要经济问题 ,与之相顺应 ,“凯恩斯主义”渐露复兴迹象。“凯恩斯主义”的荣衰进退 ,是资本主义经济周期自然发展的必然选择。“新凯恩斯主义”的出现 ,标志着西方主流经济学派随着经济危机的复杂化而趋向融合     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.