Potential of satellite based sensors for studying distribution of archaeological sites along palaeo channels: Harappan sites a case study

A large number of remote sensing based studies have shown evidence of a prominent river system, which has become buried under sand cover of Thar Desert sometime during late Holocene. This major river has been identified as Sarasvati, a legendary river mentioned in ancient Indian texts. This region is rich with archaeological sites of Harappan civilization (2500–500 BC). The present study has utilised digital image processing and enhancements techniques on multisensor satellite data followed by field investigations to reconfirm known traces and detect hitherto unknown traces of palaeochannels of Sarasvati river through parts of Indus alluvial plain in Thar desert. Potentials of IRS-P4 OCM (Primarily an Ocean Color Sensor, with eight narrow spectral channels, high radiometric resolution of 12 bits and large swath of 1420 m) could be exploited for the first time to detect hitherto unknown traces of palaeochannels of Sarasvati river through sand dune topography of Thar desert in parts of Western Rajasthan in India and adjoining parts of Pakistan by applying Principal Component Analysis technique. Pattern of palaochannels indicate westward migration of the Sarasvati river in parts of Indus alluvial plain. Database of more than 1000 archaeological sites compiled from various published sources, prepared in GIS environment could be utilised to understand their relationship with identified courses of the Sarasvati palaeochannels. Through this study it was found that there is a large spread of Mature Harappan (2200–1700 BC) sites along the palaeochannel of the Sarasvati and its tributaries in north-west India, but late Harappan (1700–1500 BC) sites are limited to further west in adjoining regions of Pakistan indicating that the shift of cluster of settlements have followed the pattern of river migration towards west. Digital terrain modelling by superimposing archaeological sites on SRTM DEM along with draped satellite data (Resourcesat-1 AWiFS and IRS-1D LISS-III) has helped in identifying geomorphological guides for archaeological investigations such as presence of relict natural levees seen as raised mounds and coincidence of known archaeological sites over them. It is suggested that other relict natural levees or raised mounds adjoining the identified palaochannel courses may be taken up for further archaeological exploration.     

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of La Olla,a Holocene archaeological site in the Pampean coast (Argentina)

The evolution of littoral palaeoenvironments in the southern Pampas region of Argentina towards the end of the early Holocene and the beginning of the mid Holocene is discussed, and the formation processes of the archaeological site of La Olla are analysed. This site is located in the intertidal zone of the present beach and is remarkably well-preserved. The human occupation at the site has been dated at between 7400 and 6480 yrs BP, and is interpreted as a place for the processing and consumption of the southern fur seal (Arctocephalus australis) and southern sea-lion (Otaria flavescens). It is concluded that biostabilization by microbial mats of the sedimentary structures and archaeological remains that developed and are present on the tidal flat prevented their erosion by wind, turbulence currents and waves. This is what has permitted the exceptional preservation of the site. On the basis of the analyses of one of the sectors of the site it can be concluded that the sedimentary succession of the La Olla site is the result of the coastal environmental changes during the early–mid Holocene in the pre-maximum transgressive episode. During this interval a tidal flat developed on the Pleistocene abrasion platform. Human occupation occurred during the formation of mixohaline marsh, an upper intertidal–lower supratidal zone ecosystem.     

Native grasslands and the stabilization of earthwork archaeological sites on the middle Missouri River,North Dakota

Abstract

Site condition and management practices at six Missouri River archaeological sites are reviewed and the condition of the sites compared between observations in 1993 and 1998. Earthwork sites in a cover of prairie or pasture grasses that have been mown for interpretation purposes have become more infested with ground squirrels. Tall prairie or shrubland obscures site features but these animals are less numerous on sites with such cover. One mown site in an urban area had no ground squirrels, suggesting that the animals had been removed by local urban dwellers or their cats and had no chance to re-invade. The long-term stability of archaeological sites can best be achieved by allowing native prairie grasses to grow tall, leaving only small samples of the site area open, or by control of ground squirrel numbers.     

Presence of the genus Cuon in upper Pleistocene and initial Holocene sites of the Iberian Peninsula: new remains identified in archaeological contexts of the Mediterranean region

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) has been documented on the Iberian Peninsula throughout the Middle and Upper Pleistocene in archaeological and palaeontological contexts. However, this is an uncommon species among the Iberian quaternary faunae as a whole. This paper focuses on the remains of the genus Cuon recovered in three different sites of the Iberian Mediterranean region and their morphological and osteometrical study. By comparing these with fourteen complete skeletons of Canis lupus, as well as with other remains of C. alpinus, we intend to highlight some anatomical and metrical differences between Cuon and Canis that, added to those already published, could be a functional base-line for the identification of this genus. The identification of this species is complex, especially in archaeological contexts, and in some cases the dhole has been identified as Canis or Canidae. Furthermore, this paper explores the chronology of the presence of the dhole in the Iberian Peninsula and the different contexts where these animals have been recovered from.     

Oxygen and strontium isotopes as provenance indicators of fish at archaeological sites: the case study of Sagalassos,SW Turkey

In this paper, we investigate the potential use of oxygen and strontium isotope ratios (δ¹⁸O_p and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) measured in archaeological fish enamel as provenance indicators. δ¹⁸O_p and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr were measured in a suite of archaeological carp remains recovered from the Anatolian townsite of Sagalassos dated to the Early Byzantine period (AD 450–650) and compared to that of modern fish, river and lake waters from the Anatolian region. We used sequential leaches in weak acetic acid to remove diagenetic Sr from fossil tooth enamel, monitoring the effectiveness of this approach by measuring the Sr/Ca ratios of the leachates via an isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry method (ID-TIMS). δ¹⁸O_p values mostly excluded a riverine origin. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of one fish overlapped with the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr signatures of two lakes in the Anatolian region, and at least one lake (Gölcük) could be removed as a candidate owing to a very distinctive ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr signature not found in any of the fish remains. Most of the tooth samples analyzed could not be assigned a precise geographical origin since the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios measured in enamel did not match that of any of the local lakes selected as potential origin. This result suggests that carp may have originated from lakes that have not yet been sampled, although this conclusion is not supported by other archaeological evidence. Alternatively, the lack of correspondence between lakes and fish Sr isotope ratios highlights several possible sources of uncertainties including spatial heterogeneity in ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio within a lake, the contribution of dietary strontium to the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of fish tooth enamel, and post-mortem alteration of the tooth Sr isotope signal during fossilization. In spite of the high precision of the strontium isotope analyses and the wide range of variation in the surface waters of the Anatolian lakes and rivers, this method may remain limited to distinguishing between lakes situated in regions of bedrock of very distinct age and geology until these sources of uncertainty are more fully investigated.     

Measuring the relative topographic position of archaeological sites in the landscape,a case study on the Bronze Age barrows in northwest Belgium

Local topography is an important parameter determining the erection of a certain type of site on a certain location in the landscape. Despite the importance of topography in archaeological landscape research, the role of local topography has remained rather unexplored compared to other specific topographic parameters such as slope, aspect, curvature or visibility. Therefore, three methods to assess the relative topographic position of sites are applied and discussed here. The Bronze Age barrow dataset of northwest Belgium acts as the subject for this methodological case study. First, elevation percentile calculates the area that is lower than the central point within a predetermined neighborhood. Secondly, difference from mean elevation measures the relative topographic position of the central point as the difference between the elevation of this central point and the mean elevation within a predetermined neighborhood. And finally, deviation from mean elevation calculates the relative topographic position of the central point as the difference from mean elevation divided by the standard deviation of elevation, within a predetermined neighborhood. These three methods, each with their advantages and disadvantages, prove to be an added value for archaeological landscape research.     

Genesis,age and archaeological significance of a pedosediment in the depression around Tell Mozan,Syria

A pedosedimentological profile from the ditch surrounding the lower town of the Bronze Age site of Mozan is investigated for its soil and sedimentological characteristics and has been dated in order to gain information on the use of the ditch and on the landscape development surrounding the settlement. The depression did not contain large amounts of water (flowing or stagnant) and probably was used for agricultural purposes. Accumulation – that in part includes anthropogenically-derived, redeposited, and bioturbated debris – started at around 2800 cal. BC or later, and was especially intensive at some time between 2800 and 1000 cal. BC. Deposition may have been caused by intensive agricultural use of the landscape during the urban explosion of the Early Bronze Age or in the early Middle Bronze Age.     

Evidence for a Neolithic Age fire-irrigation paddy cultivation system in the lower Yangtze River Delta,China

Establishing stable cropping systems was vital in antiquity, assuring certain yields and enabling ancient people to settle, thus possibly causing various modern food habits and culture to form around the world, especially in cereal-cultivation-dominated countries. China, one of the most famous ancient agricultural countries, has a long history of rice planting, and the fire-irrigation paddy cultivation system is prevalent in the lower Yangtze region, which is considered a rice domestication center. However, its origin and cultivation pattern remain unclear. We studied a famous agricultural vestige, the Chuodun site, involved in rice planting in the lower Yangtze River Delta in eastern China, during the Neolithic Age. Clear evidence from archaeology, paleobiology, pedology and biogeochemistry suggest both that the rice fire-irrigation cultivation system formed during the Neolithic Age and that ancient peoples lived there steadily. Under this extensive cultivation system, soil structures and properties changed significantly; in particular, it left more black carbon in the soil and increased the organic carbon soil stability, which can be used to reconstruct prehistoric environments. Meanwhile, the prevalent fire-irrigation paddy cultivation system used by farmers in this area, though for a different purpose than ancient people, may be inherited from the Neolithic Age.     

The consequences of Wari contact in the Nasca region during the Middle Horizon: archaeological,skeletal, and isotopic evidence

During the Middle Horizon (AD 650–1000), the Wari polity expanded its sphere of control in various regions of the Andes, including Nasca on the south coast of Peru. The nature of the interaction between Wari and local communities varied. This study explores the consequences of Wari contact in the Nasca region at the site of La Tiza, which includes individuals dated to the Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, and Late Intermediate periods. Using evidence for burial ritual along with demographic, paleopathological and isotopic data, population composition, mobility, diet, and health are investigated. δ¹³C data indicate a relatively stable diet through time at La Tiza with evidence for continued maize consumption, and paleopathological results indicate health problems associated with this type of diet. δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr data suggest that most of the individuals buried at La Tiza were local to the area. However, two female adults from the Middle Horizon burials are characterized as nonlocal based on δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values and several individuals overlap with the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr local range for the Wari heartland. In conjunction with the use of new tomb types during this period these results highlight the ideological and populational changes occurring with Wari contact at La Tiza.     

3D reality-based artefact models for the management of archaeological sites using 3D Gis: a framework starting from the case study of the Pompeii Archaeological area

This work describes the procedures, the different techniques and the pipeline used for creating a digital framework that should assist the Superintendence of Pompeii in the digital reconstruction, classification, management and visualisation of archaeological finds inside an advanced 3D web-based repository of reality-based data. Specific topics have been focused on the quality assessment procedures adopted to ensure consistency and reliability of data throughout the whole 3D models acquisition and pipeline creation, as well as on the particular semantic reality-based structure adopted to develop an information system into a knowledge one. The main purposes of our framework have been the usage of 3D digital models as a restitution of the real object and as a metaphor for navigating through the data; 3D models were used as archaeological cognitive systems and developed as a collection of structured objects, identified through a precise terminology that allows to easily extend the concept of 2D GIS to 3D GIS. In addition, the system was developed as a scalable application that allows the use of the same database by different users, simply filtering the data according to the specific requirements, and can operate both as standalone and web-based application.     

Assessing the effects of geomorphological processes on archaeological densities: a GIS case study on Zakynthos Island,Greece

While geomorphological processes are considered key factors in the distribution of archaeological surface finds, few studies have attempted to quantify the relationship between artefact dispersal and erosional/depositional patterns. This paper compares Unit Stream Power Erosion Deposition model (USPED) and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and integrates the results in the archaeological finds’ density map of Zakynthos Archaeological Project. The study area (Palaiokastro), with artefacts dated from middle Paleolithic to medieval times, includes a steep terrain with a surrounding plain area, where the downslope erosion has considerably modified the distribution of archaeological remains. Through this study, it is possible to identify relationships between high artefact densities and stable/non-eroded surfaces, and on the other hand, low densities and eroded surfaces. However, the results indicate a degree of spatial variability, which modifies the predicted relationship. The consideration of the effects of these temporal and spatial patterns is crucial for developing effective sampling methods and accurately interpreting the archaeological record.     

Mapping the risk of damage from tree roots for the conservation of archaeological sites: the case of the Domus Aurea,Rome

Abstract

Damage caused by tree root growth to archaeological monuments buried underground, over the course of centuries, has been frequently reported in the city of Rome. The Domus Aurea, Nero's Imperial residence, now lies under the Horti Traianei (Trajan's Park) on the Oppian hill. These gardens, planted at the beginning of the last century, are located only 3–4m above the surviving archaeological structures. In some cases roots have damaged the underlying vaults, sometimes creating serious structural problems. Results of the study show that a variety of species with strong root systems growing for many metres laterally, and to depths of several metres, are present. Identification of the plants responsible for the damage has been achieved through a study of the anatomy of their wood. A real and potential assessment of the risk posed by tree roots to the archaeological structures has been attempted. The data collected will contribute to evaluating the risk to monuments under similar conditions and will also help to avoid errors made in managing the plant cover of archaeological sites     

Micro-CT-assisted determination of the shattering and non-shattering phenotypes of charred rice spikelet bases from archaeological sites: a new methodological approach

The selection of a non-shattering phenotype is a pivotal change in the process of rice domestication. However, current research is heavily restricted by the preservation conditions of macro-plant remains in early and middle Neolithic sites, as very limited well-preserved rice spikelet bases could be retrieved. We present a non-destructive method based on micro-computed tomographic (CT) scanning, which could provide detailed visualization of the internal structures of charred spikelet bases and efficiently discriminate the shattering and non-shattering phenotypes of rice spikelet bases according to the abundance of fusiform echinate phytoliths. It could be widely applied in different contexts, especially those poorly preserved specimens and tempers in pottery sherds, greatly improving our knowledge of rice domestication.     

Human and Natural Controls on the Accumulation,Acidification and Drainage of Pyritic Sediments: Pearl River Delta,China and Coastal New South Wales

There is increasing concern about environmental impacts of acidic drainage from acid sulphate soils on Holocene estuarine flood plains. Acidity derives from oxidation of iron pyrite in the sediments. Natural factors determine concentrations and distributions of pyrite accumulations, but human activities have reduced pyrite accumulation in the Pearl River Delta with land use practices increasing terrestrial sediment discharge. Large freshwater discharges and management techniques have enabled sustainable use of these soils. High concentrations of pyrite occur in many estuarine flood plains of Australia because of relatively greater marine inputs. Drainage of these soils enhances pyrite oxidation and estuarine acidification, which is associated with fish-kills. For sustainable development, the problems of acid sulphate soil drainage must be recognised and overcome.     

Stability of phytoliths in the archaeological record: a dissolution study of modern and fossil phytoliths

Opaline phytoliths are important microfossils used in archaeological and ecological research. Relatively little is known about the stability of phytoliths after burial. Under alkaline pH conditions they can dissolve, and mechanical disturbances can cause a loss of their more delicate appendages. Here we present an experimental study of phytolith stability (combination of solubility and abrasion). Modern and fossil phytoliths were extracted from wheat using new methods to minimize dissolution, and by burning in an oven. These assemblages were placed in a solution buffered to pH 10 and maintained under constant temperature and shaking conditions. The silicon concentrations in the solution were monitored once a week for 5 weeks. The phytolith morphologies in each assemblage were determined at the outset of the experiment and after 5 weeks. The results show that there are differences in stability between various assemblages. Modern inflorescence wheat phytolith assemblages are more unstable than those from leaves/stems. Burnt assemblages are less stable than unburnt assemblages, and a fossil phytolith assemblage about 3000 years old is more stable than the modern wheat assemblages. The results also show that individual phytolith morphotypes have different stabilities, and as a result of dissolution and abrasion, some morphotypes may resemble others. This study further shows that archaeological and/or paleo-environmental interpretation of phytolith assemblages may change with the assemblage’s state of preservation.     

Developing baseline data to understand environmental change: a geochemical study of archaeological otoliths from the Coorong,South Australia

Otoliths are calcium carbonate structures found in the inner ear of teleost fish. While they are routinely studied by marine scientists, analyses of otoliths recovered from archaeological sites in Australia and the Pacific have generally been restricted to identification of species and sometimes the fish age. Otoliths can also provide information on the season of catch, and, through trace element analysis, allow the reconstruction of environmental conditions experienced by fish. In this study, we use otoliths from mid- to late Holocene aged archaeological shell middens at the Coorong (South Australia) to examine species present, season of catch, age of fish and environmental conditions experienced by fish. Results demonstrate that the majority of the fish (identified as Argyrosomus japonicus and Acanthopagrus butcheri) were caught in freshwater environments during the warm season, and had grown to an age and size indicative of their having reached sexual maturity. This study provides data indicating fluctuating levels of salinity in the estuary, which are significantly lower than the hypersaline conditions experienced today. Ultimately, this project highlights the usefulness of conducting more detailed investigations of otoliths, including geochemical analyses, to address a wide range of research questions in archaeology and palaeoenvironmental research.     

Assessing the distribution of Asian Palaeolithic sites: a predictive model of collagen degradation

Having previously shown that there is a statistically significant relationship between areas of low collagen degradation and the location of archaeological sites in Africa [K.M. Holmes, K.A. Robson Brown, W.P. Oates, M.J. Collins, Assessing the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites: a predictive model of collagen degradation, Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 157–166], we here test the applicability of the same model on Palaeolithic archaeological remains from Asia.     

Assessing the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites: a predictive model of collagen degradation

In order to assess the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites and hominin remains, we need an understanding of the factors that may affect the preservation of archaeological material in the fossil record. One of the main factors that is thought to affect seriously the global distribution of fossil remains is taphonomy, but it would seem that taphonomic processes may themselves be overprinted by collagen degradation.The rate of collagen loss is highly temperature dependent, and it has been shown that bone is more likely to be preserved in areas of lower temperature and so lower collagen loss. Hence, it would be expected that fossil fauna remains would be distributed in areas of low collagen loss, i.e. low temperature. Conversely, lithics will not be subject to a temperature bias in their preservation. We have tested this hypothesis through the use of archaeological material.Our results show that the distributions of both lithic and faunal assemblages are non-random across the African continent, with all archaeological sites being found in areas of relatively low collagen degradation. This implies that bone collagen degradation is not the only factor affecting the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites and hominin remains. We suggest that the site distribution is not a reflection of bias in excavation history, but is a real phenomenon reflecting hominin habitat choice.     

The blessing of a great flood: differentiation of mortality patterns in the large mammal record of the Lower Pleistocene fluvial site of Untermassfeld (Germany) and its relevance for the interpretation of faunal assemblages from archaeological sites

The site of Untermassfeld (Germany) documents flood catastrophes of the Werra River ca. 1 Myr years ago. Although all vertebrate individuals of an equivalent thanatocoenosis in principle underwent the same taphonomic history different mortality patterns have been observed for different animal species. It can be demonstrated that mortality patterns preserved by the fossil record are heavily affected by the physiological capability and ethology of a particular species as well as by the particular taphonomic situation prevailing at the location of final deposition. Against this background mortality patterns for the interpretation of faunal assemblages from archaeological sites are discussed in a broader context.