Application of veratraldehyde as a temporary consolidant for relics at underwater cultural heritage sites

Because it is often difficult to preserve fragile relics in situ at underwater cultural heritage sites, it is sometimes necessary for relics to be extracted and moved to a controlled environment on land for protection and study. This paper discusses the feasibility of using the volatile organic compound veratraldehyde as a temporary consolidant for underwater fragile relics extraction. The results show that different materials (iron, tile, sand, wood) under water can be bonded together and extracted when using veratraldehyde. The fact that veratraldehyde is difficult to spread on the surface of underwater objects is a problem that can be solved by adding a layer of strong hydrophobic polypropylene (PP) fibres onto the object, serving as a ‘package' for the relics. Under laboratory conditions, we used veratraldehyde and PP fibres to extract broken tiles from underwater sand onto an exhibition stand. The broken tiles, in both condition and distribution, were safely and completely retained as the veratraldehyde was slowly removed by the soaking process. This work fills a gap in knowledge about temporary consolidant materials in underwater archaeology, and provides a new method for extracting underwater fragile cultural relics without damaging them.     

Florida’s Underwater Archaeological Preserves: Public Participation as an Approach to Submerged Heritage Management

Abstract

Florida waters are home to the remains of such diverse watercraft as galleons, freighters, sailing yachts, steamboats, and prehistoric canoes. Managing these resources, especially regarding questions of access versus preservation, can be a daunting task. Florida’s Underwater Archaeological Preserves programme is an experiment in public participation to further both the awareness and the preservation of submerged heritage through site conservation and interpretation, incorporating various stakeholders during each step in the process. The logic in Florida’s Preserves programme is that an involved public given free access to a shipwreck site can be an ingredient for, instead of a hindrance to, preservation. Although one of several programmes worldwide, the concept that sets Florida’s Underwater Archaeological Preserves programme apart is its use of public involvement to promote education that fosters attitudes of conservation and preservation. If the public feels a share as stakeholders in the preservation of their maritime heritage, then submerged cultural resources will be more effectively protected.     

Archaeology of the Ljubljanica River (Slovenia): early underwater investigations and some current issues

Abundant archaeological evidence and specific geomorphologic features make the upper course of the Ljubljanica River running through Ljubljana Moor (Slovenia) one of the most interesting rivers in Europe. Roman bronze vessels and iron weapons found by chance in the Ljubljanica at Vrhnika, the ancient Nauportus, led the director of the Provincial Museum in Ljubljana, Karel Dežman, to devise a large scale plan for an underwater survey of the riverbed. This, one of the first modern research projects of underwater archaeology was executed in 1884 with the help of divers from the Austro-Hungarian naval base in Pula. Investigations by the Group for Underwater Archaeology and the activities of amateur divers from 1979 onwards revealed distinctly structured distributions of underwater finds on several sites in the upper course of the river indicating possible sacred places with votive offerings and funeral sites, as well as other non-ritual concentrations.     

US protection of underwater cultural heritage beyond the territorial sea: problems and prospects

Current US treatment of underwater cultural heritage beyond the territorial sea is analysed in light of Law of the Sea principles and the UNESCO Draft Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.     

Temporary consolidation and packaging of fragile cultural relics at underwater archaeological sites to maintain their original state during extraction

The flexible sponge/epoxy composite can wrap underwater artefacts in any shape and forms a protective shell after curing, thus effectively wrapping and reinforcing the artefacts. However, the hydroscopicity of the sponge itself limits the underwater application of the sponge/epoxy composite. In this study, a novel polyurethane sponge was prepared by modified with super-hydrophobic multi-wall carbon nanotubes (SH-MWCNTs@PU sponge). Compared with the pristine PU sponge, the water-contact angle on the surface of SH-MWCNTs@PU sponges increased from 103.3 ± 1.82 to 152.6 ± 1.54^o, and oily epoxy resin was able to cover the surface completely. The study shows that when SH-MWCNTs@PU sponges/epoxy resin composite material is used underwater, it prevents both water from entering the sponge and also the inside epoxy resin from overflowing into the water. Moreover, the composite materials have excellent toughness after reinforcement under water (flexural strength = 3.56 MPa) and the soft sponges can be moulded to wrap any type of underwater artefacts. In the laboratory, when taking a broken, three-dimensional blue-and-white porcelain pot as a research subject, the entire retrieval process—temporary stabilization, packaging, extraction and reinforcement material removal—was simulated to evaluate systematically all the technological aspects of safely excavating fragile underwater relics.     

The RAAR Project — Heritage Management Aspects on Reburial After Ten Years of Work

Abstract

The general purpose of the international reburial project, Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains (RAAR), is to evaluate reburial as a method for the long-term storage and preservation of waterlogged archaeological remains. Since 2001 material samples have been buried, retrieved, analysed systematically, and the results reported.

RAAR has mainly focused on the degradation of materials commonly encountered on archaeological sites, and on environmental monitoring techniques in order to determine what type of material can be reburied and for how long. The project has concluded that a heritage institution could provide short- or long-term curation for its archaeological archive by using reburial depots provided they are set up according to guidelines and restrictions stipulated by the RAAR project.

However, there are management and legal aspects that need to be discussed and resolved before each reburial project. Actual reburials that have been carried out so far are often a solution to emergency situations and lack collection and management policies. The questions ‘what’, ‘why’, and ‘for how long’ have been forgotten and need to be addressed. The legal protection of a reburial site is also important. This paper discusses these aspects and their consequences and highlights possible differences in approaches between the countries involved in the RAAR project.     

Fishing-gear sinkers recovered from an underwater wreckage site, off the Carmel coast, Israel

A classification scheme for the large number of fishing-gear sinkers recovered along the Israeli coast is devised. Sinkers, or weights, of lead and stone are classified by material, shape and method of manufacture.     

Geophysical Methods for Wreck‐Site Monitoring: the Rapid Archaeological Site Surveying and Evaluation (RASSE) programme

Rapid advances in geophysical techniques over the past decade have provided the maritime archaeological community with significant opportunities for re‐defining the procedures for wreck‐site mapping, evaluation and monitoring. The techniques which offer most potential for high‐resolution survey are acoustic‐based and include sidescan sonar, swath‐bathymetry sonar and multibeam sonar. These techniques were tested on an artificial test‐site in Plymouth Sound and over the wreck of the Stirling Castle. Results demonstrate that the techniques can provide the maritime archaeologist with the opportunity to rapidly and cost‐effectively map and monitor small, centimetric changes on sites, with the potential for long‐term monitoring and management. © 2009 The Authors     

Fishing Gear from a 7th-Century Shipwreck off Dor, Israel

The ancient anchorage of Dor, Israel, contains wreck-sites from several periods. Underwater exploration of one Byzantine wreck discovered the remains of a medium-size boat constructed with iron nails. Coin-finds dated it to c .665 AD, after the Muslim conquest. The wreck was probably caused by natural agents, but an event in the Byzantine-Muslim conflict can not be discounted. The artefacts include a group of objects testifying to the practice of light-fishing. Literary sources indicate a prevalence of light-fishing, but archaeological finds are very rare. This discovery clearly indicates light-fishing in late antiquity. A sounding-lead and steelyard can be seen as auxiliary to the fishing.
© 2007 The Authors     

Using Sector‐Scan Sonar for the Survey and Management of Submerged Archaeological Sites

This article reports the results of using a sector‐scan sonar to record diverse submerged archaeological sites in shallow and deep water. The Kongsberg MS1000 sector‐scan sonar was developed for commercial applications, typically underwater inspections of bridges, dams, ports and harbours. The ability of the device to rapidly generate high‐quality, geometrically accurate scans of submerged features, coupled with its ease of use and deployment make it a potentially important, yet largely overlooked, tool for survey and management of underwater archaeological sites. As one of several technologies available, the paper examines its advantages and limitations, and considers, through case studies, under which conditions it is most effectively deployed.     

Complications and Effectiveness of In Situ Preservation Methods for Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites

Abstract

Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) as an outstanding division of the cultural heritage of humanity appears to be crucial and complicated when more general issues regarding preservation and conservation are raised. The essence of in situ preservation should be equally discussable for any kind of archaeological remains; on land or underwater.

There is a long history of different methods and concepts of intervention in a variety of sub-aquatic archaeological sites; from shipwrecks to submerged settlements. This paper will present an introduction to different techniques and theories of preservation and conservation of underwater cultural and archaeological sites since this kind of heritage has scientifically been explored and studied. A range of different preservation methodologies, from total or partial transference inland, to preservation underwater, will be compared; the advantages and disadvantages of each option will be highlighted. Different examples of international best practices will be illustrated. Different types of in situ conservation/protection will be explained and categorized. Furthermore, there will be a focus on the UNESCO Convention of 2001 on Conservation and Preservation of UCH, where the in situ conservation option has been recommended.

Moreover, the technical issue for preservation of UCH sites, either in situ or after displacement, will be explained. The implication of relocation for different sorts of sites and materials will be argued; for example, cases where some sites, such as shipwrecks, would more easily be displaced compared with submerged settlements, villages, or ports.

Finally, by stressing that the state of ‘being underwater’ makes many sites qualified to be regarded as UCH, the in situ preservation approach will prevail that this state is maintained.     

Maritime Aspects of Medieval Siraf,Iran: a pilot project for the investigation of coastal and underwater archaeological remains

Siraf is well‐known archaeologically and historically as an ancient port in the Persian Gulf that prospered during the medieval period. Siraf played a leading role in facilitating maritime and terrestrial trade, connecting long‐distance Indian Ocean and China routes with those in the Gulf region. Despite its history, no previous research has been dedicated to the maritime infrastructure of Siraf. Through the ‘2012 Siraf pilot project’ a preliminary survey of the underwater and shoreline remains of this ancient port city was conducted. The site's location is unique in many respects to trade routes and logistical considerations; however, its maritime infrastructure is difficult to assess in light of the extensive threats to the site.     

The ISCR Project ‘Restoring Underwater’: An Evaluation of the Results After Ten Years

Abstract

The project ‘Restoring Underwater’ launched and conducted by the Underwater Archaeology Operations Unit of the Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione ed il Restauro (ISCR, Rome, Italy) is aimed at the study and the experimentation of instruments, materials, methodologies, and techniques for the restoration, conservation, and in situ display of ancient submerged artefacts. The project commenced in 2001 with the restoration of the vivaria of the Roman villa of Torre Astura (Nettuno, Rome), since 2003 the main subject of researches has been the submerged archaeological site of Baiae (Naples, Italy), where, over the years, the restoration of sectors of certain buildings in the protected marine area has been carried out: the Villa con ingresso a Protiro, the Villa dei Pisoni, the Via Herculanea, and the Building with porticoed courtyard near Portus Iulius. In 2007, in 2009, and in 2010 three new archaeological targets have been added to the research: a group of nine cast iron cannons discovered offshore the coast of the Marettimo Island (Sicily, Italy), the Roman wreck carrying a load of sarcophagi discovered off the coast of San Pietro in Bevagna (Taranto, Italy), and the traditional fishing boat recently discovered off the cost of Martana Island (Bolsena Lake, Italy).

The purpose of this paper is to sum up the work in progress and the results of these ten years of the project. The paper will shows as the conservation and museum display in situ of underwater heritage must not just be considered an opportune choice but may in itself provide a strong stimulus for experimenting new materials and technologies as well as representing a factor in the socio-economic development of the communities concerned, as shown by the example of Baiae.     

A Feasibility Study for the Investigation of Submerged Sites along the Coast of Slovenia

Maritime investigations along the Northern Adriatic coast have traditionally focused on the Roman and later archaeology. However, studies of post-glacial sea-level change and shoreline displacement suggest there is significant potential for the discovery of sites close inshore dating back to the early- to mid-Holocene, c .9000 BC onwards. A feasibility study for the investigation of submerged sites along the coast of Slovenia was undertaken in 2005. Here we describe the project rationale and research design, the survey and recording methods used, the logistical problems encountered, the results obtained (regardless of age), and the prospects for future research in the region.
© 2009 The Authors     

Archaeological application of the HPASS (High Precision Acoustic Surveying System) to surveys of the HMS Pandora wreck-site and the Roman bridge at Maastricht

The report describes the use of the High Precision Acoustic Surveying System on the Museum of Tropical Queensland 1999 Pandora Expedition and on a project undertaken by the Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek and the Netherlands Institute of Ship Archaeology (ROB/NISA) on the remains of a Roman bridge at Maastricht, The Netherlands.     

The Need for a Multivocal Approach to Researching and Managing Guam's World War II Underwater Cultural Heritage

Since 2006, four maritime archaeology field schools, desktop and field surveys have been carried out in Guam. In 2012 a site associated with the United States Navy's Construction Battalion (US Seabees) was investigated. This paper summarizes the historical background of Guam and the known sites of maritime archaeological interest, particularly those dating to World War II. The problems of public interpretation of the cultural material of colonial powers are considered, and, using the Seabee site as an example, ways in which Guam's indigenous Chamorro people can be included in this history are presented.     

‘Marineness’, the Underwater Seascape and Variability in Maritime Adaptations in the Late Ceramic Age Northern Lesser Antilles

ABSTRACT

To investigate potential variation between the fishing practices of contemporaneous Late Ceramic Age villages in the northern Lesser Antilles, we model expectations for each site based on local marine habitat and bathymetry and compare them to observed differences in zooarchaeological assemblages. The predictive model approximates which taxa were the most likely to have been targeted by fishers from each site, assuming that the majority of fishing likely occurred within short distances from each settlement. A comparison of expectations and archaeological observations is used to expose potential differences between sites in preferred fishing areas and techniques, preferred foods, or social distinctions. This variability is argued to reflect a fishing community’s ‘marineness’, or the interrelationship members have with the unique composition of marine resources and underwater seascape adjacent to their villages.     

An underwater photomosaic technique using Adobe Photoshop™

A simple technique for taking systematic runs of vertical underwater photographs is described. Computer-based procedures for rectifying, matching, and assembling the photographs into mosaics using Adobe Photoshop™ software are then explained.     

Stone anchors from the Mediterranean coasts of Anatolia, Turkey: underwater surveys and archaeometrical investigations

This study is mainly based on the expeditions and underwater study of stone anchors from the Cilician coast, Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology and the Kaš Uluburun wreck. The stone anchors found on the Cilician coast are very similar to eastern Mediterranean stone anchors with respect to shape and characteristics. The stone anchors from BMUA and KUW were examined by thin section and XRD analysis. They are made of volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The study indicates that the anchors are similar to others found in the Mediterranean.