THE ORIGIN OF THE PICTORIAL KRATER FROM THE ‘MYCENAEAN’ TOMB AT TEL DAN

A Late Bronze Age Mycenaean pictorial krater, decorated with a chariot procession, from tomb 387 at Tel Dan, Israel, was examined by instrumental neutron activation analysis. The origin of the krater is placed in the Argolid, very likely in the region of Mycenae or Berbati.     

In the Steps of William the Conqueror: Neutron Activation Analysis of Caen Stone*

Quarries in the Bathonian stone formation surrounding Caen produced high‐quality limestone for medieval churches in northern France and southern England and for their sculptural decoration. To investigate compositional differences among proximate stone sources, 103 samples collected from five separate quarries were analysed by NAA. The results show Caen stone to be essentially pure calcite and relatively homogeneous, but distinction among quarries is possible by discriminant analysis. Comparing compositions of quarry samples with data in the Brookhaven Limestone Database identified the origin of stone used in masonry and sculpture at Saint‐Étienne and La Trinité, Caen, and in several museum objects.     

Post‐Depositional Elemental Alterations in Pottery: Neutron Activation Analyses of Surface and Core Samples*

From 38 sherds with ‘corroded’ surfaces, two samples per sherd were examined using Neutron Activation Analysis, one from the surface and one from the core of each sherd, in order to analyse post‐depositional alterations of minor and trace elements. The most striking effect was that a leaching of Ca could be found at the surface. Another group of elements that is severely affected are the alkali metals, with Cs and Rb showing the strongest changes. A third conspicuous group of elements are the Rare Earth Elements. Finally, the effect of such alterations on a statistical data evaluation to classify pottery according to provenance is investigated.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF COLONIAL CERAMICS FROM SOUTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR*

Sixty‐one ceramic samples collected in Cuenca, Ecuador, were analysed by neutron activation analysis in an attempt to establish their elemental compositions. The bulk of the samples were manufactured in the region of Cuenca, with others imported from Quito in the northern highlands of Ecuador, from Panama Vieja in Panama, and from Seville in Spain. Relative to the Cuenca ceramics, the Spanish samples were separable primarily by their high Ca contents; the Panamanian ceramics by their high Cs contents; and the Quito ceramics by their high Na contents. The ceramics made within the region surrounding Cuenca are much more difficult to separate, with Ba and other elements being potentially important.     

THOUGHTS ON THE UTILITY OF A BIVARIATE‐SPLITTING APPROACH TO OLMEC CERAMIC DATA INTERPRETATION*

A recently resolved debate centred on the interpretation of a major set of INAA data that was based on Olmec ceramics from Mexico. In an attempt to answer questions arising from the debate, this paper discusses the effect of numbers of samples chosen for data interpretation. It also presents interpretations of the ceramic data set based on a bivariate data‐splitting approach and compares the results of this with the multivariate analysis approaches employed by the initial publishers of the data.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION PATTERNING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AT THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ‘DEMOKRITOS’: THE CASE OF BLACK‐ON‐RED NEOLITHIC POTTERY FROM MACEDONIA,GREECE

A short history of the application of NAA in the characterization of archaeological materials at the National Center for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, Athens, is presented. NAA was first applied in archaeology in 1974 at the Radioanalytical Laboratory, and since 1989 has been one of the primary analytical techniques of the ‘Demokritos’ archaeometry programme. A case study is also presented, concerning chemical patterning of the black‐on‐red Neolithic pottery class from Macedonia. Four chemical groups were identified, each corresponding to a different area of production. It is shown that this standardized concept of pottery technology and style was spread out within at least eastern Macedonia.     

CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TIN‐LEAD GLAZED POTTERY FROM THE IBERIAN PENINSULA AND THE CANARY ISLANDS: INITIAL STEPS TOWARD A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF SPANISH COLONIAL POTTERY IN THE AMERICAS*

Majolica pottery was the most characteristic tableware produced in Europe during the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Because of the prestige and importance attributed to this ware, Spanish majolica was imported in vast quantities into the Americas during the Spanish Colonial period. A study of Spanish majolica was conducted on a set of 186 samples from the 10 primary majolica production centres on the Iberian Peninsula and 22 sherds from two early colonial archaeological sites on the Canary Islands. The samples were analysed by neutron activation analysis (NAA), and the resulting data were interpreted using an array of multivariate statistical approaches. Our results show a clear discrimination between different production centres, allowing a reliable provenance attribution of the sherds from the Canary Islands.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ‘BEST RELATIVE FIT FACTOR’ WHEN EVALUATING ELEMENTAL CONCENTRATION DATA OF POTTERY DEMONSTRATED WITH MYCENAEAN SHERDS FROM SINDA,CYPRUS

Neutron activation analysis of pottery was established at Bonn in 1983 and has since become one of the primary archaeometry‐based analytical techniques at the facility. A brief history of the laboratory and a discussion of the best relative fit procedure for pottery is provided. When comparing concentration data for pottery, a best relative fit should always be considered. This mathematical procedure generally results in ‘sharper’ concentration patterns and improves the separability of chemically not very different compositional groups. This is demonstrated for a set of 30 Late Cypriot (Myc. IIIC1) pottery samples from Sinda, Cyprus, which allow formation of a good reference pattern for this site. Applying factors in the range of 0.82–1.43, a number of samples from Egypt and Palestine can be assigned with high probability to a Cypriot origin.     

DETERMINING POTTERY PROVENANCE: APPLICATION OF A NEW HIGH-PRECISION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE METHOD AND COMPARISON WITH INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS*

A recently developed high-precision X-ray fluorescence (XRF) method, applied for the first time to the study of archaeological pottery, determines the abundances of 13 trace and four major elements from one X-ray spectrum acquired over a 1000 second counting interval. For replicate archaeological samples, the short-term and long-term measurement precisions were close to 1% for the ten elements measured with highest precision. These are comparable to the best results achieved on replicates of clay and pottery standards, and obsidian, using instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). High-precision XRF analysis, however, does not require a nuclear facility, and is markedly preferable to INAA in terms of the ease of both sample preparation and analytical procedure. Consequently, element abundance data can usually be provided by a single analyst within a few hours after the start of sample preparation. The accuracy of the method, determined by comparison with data of other workers on eight standard reference materials, averaged 2.4% for the ten best-agreeing elements. The effectiveness of the method for determining pottery provenance is demonstrated for a difficult problem, in which high-precision XRF analysis successfully distinguished the products of two nearby pottery manufacturers in Roman Galilee (Shikhin and Nahif) that had not been clearly differentiated by INAA. The greater effectiveness of high-precision XRF than INAA in this provenance study is a result of the different array of elements measured, and the higher precision obtained for certain elements, by XRF. These results suggest that high precision XRF has potential broad applicability for pottery provenance studies.     

STEATITE SOURCE CHARACTERIZATION IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA: NEW RESULTS USING INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS*

Doubts have recently been cast on the ability to characterize steatite sources using rare earth elements (REEs). By increasing the number of samples and elements examined using instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and multivariate statistics, this study shows that, with unhomogenized samples, transition metals, not REEs, make the greatest contribution in characterizing steatite sources in the Middle Atlantic region of eastern North America. Preliminary results suggest that INAA has the potential to assign provenance to steatite artefacts, at least at a regional level.     

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A DATA BASE OF NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSES OF WHITE MARBLE*

The establishment of a data base of trace element analysis results obtained by neutron activation analysis of 183 marble samples, each weighing about 200 mg, from eight different quarrying localities for use in provenance studies is described and a summary of the results presented. The problems of sampling museum artefacts are discussed, and details of tests of the reproducibility of the technique are given together with those obtained from multiple-samples from single museum objects. Replicate analyses of a marble standard are also discussed. Thus these data are a measure of the accuracy and precision of the technique, as well as allowing an assessment of the variation in trace element composition within quarry sources and single blocks of marble, as used for artefacts.     

INTERREGIONAL CONTACTS BETWEEN TELL EN-NASBEH AND LITTORAL PHILISTINE CENTRES IN CANAAN DURING EARLY IRON AGE I*

Philistine bichrome ware from Tell en-Nasbeh, an Israelite village in the hill country, has been characterized by instrumental neutron activation analysis. A group of pottery stylistically indistinguishable from wares made in Philistia is shown to be of local origin, while other sherds match kiln wasters found in the littoral Philistine city of Ashdod. These findings attest to complex and reciprocal interregional contacts between the Philistines and the Israelites during the eleventh to twelfth centuries BC.     

PROVENANCE STUDIES OF KOREAN CELADONS OF THE KORYǑ PERIOD BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS*

Neutron activation analyses of the body fabric of celadons from the main production sites of the Koryǒ period have shown differences in composition between kilns. Comparison of over 50 celadon objects in the collections of the British Museum with this data base from the production sites has permitted the assignment of over 40 of the pieces to their kiln of origin The majority show the trace element pattern of the Sadangri kilns, a smaller proportion are assigned to Yuchǒnri, while others are assigned to the kilns at Chinsanri (underglaze iron) and Kyǒngsǒ-dong (unglazed). A representative group of Chinese Yue wares arc clearly different from Koryǒ celadons in trace element composition.     

PROVENANCE STUDIES OF ROMAN AFRICAN RED SLIP WARE USING NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

African Red Slip ware (ARS) from Carthage and San Sisto Vecchio (Rome) was analysed by neutron activation analysis. The Carthage tableware was linked with Oudna and the type 1 lamps were probably from a northern ARS/lamp factory other than the sources currently investigated. Two samples were central Tunisian, probably manufactured at El Ala. The San Sisto samples divided into three groups and three outliers of undetermined provenance. Group 1 was central Tunisian, probably from El Ala, and was composed entirely of terra sigillata chiara C forms. Group 2 was of unknown origin within northern Tunisia. Group 3 was the largest subset and most of its constituent samples were associated with El Mahrine. Additionally, four samples were linked with Oudna.     

EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF SAMPLE‐EXTRACTION METHODS AND THE POTENTIAL FOR CONTAMINATION IN CERAMIC SPECIMENS*

Contamination of ceramic specimens resulting from sample‐preparation techniques has the ability to confound efforts of chemical characterization. Primary contamination, identified by significant concentrations of one or more elements, is easily identified. Secondary contamination, resulting from undetected elements influencing detected elements, is more difficult to identify. Evaluation of six powder‐extraction techniques identifies variable effects of contamination. Extraction by drilling carries the highest risk of contamination. The grinding of specimens with silicon‐carbide wheels may artificially deplete abundances by introducing Si and C. Grinding specimens in an agate mortar and pestle is found to be the technique least likely to result in contamination effects.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF BIRD BOWLS AND RELATED ARCHAIC CERAMICS FROM MILETUS

In this paper we present the results of a chemical investigation by neutron activation analysis of sherds of different kinds of bird kotylai, bird bowls and related wares excavated in Kalabaktepe, a hill of the ancient city of Miletus. A new archaeological classification of this well-known group of Archaic ceramics of eastern Greece is presented. A number of kiln wasters of misfired vessels from Kalabaktepe revealed a characteristic local pattern. This pattern helped to clarify the provenance of some of the bird bowls classified archaeologically as of orientalizing type: they have been made in Miletus. But bird kotylai and bird bowls in the 'standard fabric’as well as other archaeologically related vessels show a different chemical pattern of unknown provenance.     

INSIGHTS INTO NORTH MESOPOTAMIAN ‘METALLIC WARE’*

With the aim of shedding new light on the still poorly understood North Mesopotamian metallic ware, ceramic and soil samples from Tell Beydar (northeastern Syria, third millennium bc ) were investigated using a range of analytical techniques, including optical microscopy, SR–XRD and SEM–EDX. The objective of this work was to differentiate calcareous metallic ware from non‐calcareous ware without the aid of chemical analyses and to find further validation of the existing hypothesis that the former group is an imitation of the latter. A third group of metallic wares from Tell Beydar is believed to be of non‐local, still regional origin.     

THE SMITHSONIAN–NIST PARTNERSHIP: THE APPLICATION OF INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS TO ARCHAEOLOGY

The history and procedures of the Smithsonian–NIST programme in the application of instrumental neutron activation to the study of archaeological materials are reviewed. Statistical processing of the resulting analytical data is a major focus of the programme, with attention called to processes of initial group formation. Specific areas of current research emphasis are presented, which build upon the strength of accumulated databases.     

NON‐DESTRUCTIVE INVESTIGATION OF BRONZE ARTEFACTS FROM THE MARCHES NATIONAL MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY USING NEUTRON DIFFRACTION*

Non‐destructive neutron diffraction techniques were applied to determine composition and microstructure data, and hence to derive information on manufacturing techniques of Picenum bronze artefacts. Furthermore, texture analyses were carried out on standards and suitable ancient artefacts to investigate their potential role in archaeometallurgical studies. This is a first step towards an overall characterization of the bronze collection of the Marches National Museum of Archaeology, Italy, and the analytical demonstration of relations with and differences compared to Etruscan metallurgy. The work is also an example application of the powerful non‐destructive archaeometrical approaches provided by time‐of‐flight neutron diffraction.     

ANALCIME CRYSTALLIZATION AND COMPOSITIONAL PROFILES—COMPARING APPROACHES TO DETECT POST‐DEPOSITIONAL ALTERATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTTERY*

The approaches of comparative studies and profile measurements, often used in order to detect post‐depositional alterations of ceramics, have been applied simultaneously to two sets of Roman pottery, both of which include altered individuals. As analytical techniques, Neutron Activation Analysis and X‐Ray Diffraction have been used. Both approaches lead to substantially different results. This shows that they detect different levels of alteration and should complement each other rather than being used exclusively. For the special process of a glassy phase decomposition followed by a crystallization of the Na‐zeolite analcime, the results suggest that it changes high‐fired calcareous pottery rapidly, and so fundamentally that the results of various archaeometric techniques can be severely disturbed.