The Potential Performance of Ancient Mediterranean Sailing Rigs

A common statement in the academic literature relating to the ancient Mediterranean is that the lateen/settee rig superseded the Mediterranean square‐sail because it provided superior upwind performance, greater manoeuvrability and higher overall speed. This statement has been repeated so often that it is now commonly accepted. Research by the author sets out to develop an insight into the relative performance of both types of rig, based on historical sources, ethnographic records and the performance of representative, full‐size sailing vessels. This allows a reassessment to be made of the underlying reasons behind the adoption of the lateen/settee rig in the Mediterranean. © 2010 The Author     

Sailing and Sailing Rigs in the Ancient Mediterranean: implications of continuity,variation and change in propulsion technology

Ships and boats form the foundations of the maritime connectivity that is a central part of our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean. While the general chronological sequence of sail and sailing‐rig development is well established, the implications are less‐well discussed. This article sets out how sails and sailing rigs developed in antiquity, with emphasis on the Greco‐Roman world. Subsequently, instances of innovation are defined. Why specific pieces of maritime technology were, or were not, widely adopted is considered. Long‐term technological continuity can be comprehended, and a shared maritime culture of sailing in the ancient Mediterranean is suggested.     

Reflections on the Balance of Traditional Sailing Vessels

The balance of sailing vessels makes an important contribution to sailing characteristics, but its measurement is far from trivial. Traditionally, balance has been determined from the geometric centres of hulls and sails, but experimental results show that this approach is highly inaccurate. Designers overcome this difficulty by the use of a heuristic concept of 'lead', but the geometric methodology can be misleading in retrospective analysis of ancient sailing vessels. It can result in doubtful conclusions about sailing capabilities and incorrect deductions about the type of rig that was used and the reasons for specific mast positions.
© 2008 The Author     

Learning to sail the Duyfken replica

The rig of the Duyfken 'replica', a reconstruction Dutch jacht of c . 1600 is described. Sail-handling techniques and sailing performance including steering with a whipstaff are also described. Experiments to improve sailing efficiency, some prompted by analysis of contemporary iconography, are discussed.     

Heritage Sailing in Australia: a preliminary schema

Distinguishing between replica and restored sailing vessels in terms of their emphasis on heritage and sailing and between the intellectual and kinaesthetic appreciation of heritage produces a simple classificatory schema. Using this schema enables one to distinguish stationary exhibits, ?museum? vessels, sail training vessels and commercial vessels. The schema suggests several research areas for further enquiry.     

Kelenderis Ship—Square or Lateen Sail?

The Kelenderis ship appears in a harbour scene frame that forms one-third of a mosaic floor (the other two-thirds are decorated with geometric patterns). The name of the ship indicates its location, the town once called Kelenderis, in Turkey. The large sailing ship is depicted with a fully-open quadrilateral sail. No anchor or mooring line is indicated, but its static position suggests that the vessel is at anchor. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the intricate type of sailing rig. The Kelenderis ship was researched in detail for the first time by Zaraza Friedman in her 2003 PhD dissertation.
© 2006 The Authors     

Windward Sailing Capabilities of Ancient Vessels

Weatherliness is widely considered to have been an important ability for ancient sailing vessels, yet little firm experimental or theoretical data on the matter is available. However, by drawing on a variety of sources of model-test data and trials of full-scale replicas, it is possible to establish a general picture of what might have been possible. It appears that while ancient sailing vessels may have been capable of modest windward performance in moderate conditions and with a freshly-cleaned hull, this capability quickly disappeared as the hull became fouled and/or the wind and sea conditions deteriorated.
© 2008 The Author     

Four Scandinavian ship graffiti from Hagia Sophia

Abstract

This paper is the first presentation of four graffiti from the church of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, and a contribution to the study of Viking graffiti of sailing vessels.     

Neo in Oceania

Between 1790 and 1830, Hawaiian chiefs built, purchased or otherwise acquired a fleet of Westernstyle sailing vessels which they used to transform various aspects of Hawaiian culture, including military engagements, tribute collection, inter-island commerce and status competition. A list of 41 such vessels with known names is presented, but historical records point to the existence of dozens of other such ships whose names have not been identified. These data allow for the estimation of economic investments made by chiefs in the purchase of ships, and document a trend in which the earliest Western-style vessels were built locally, only later to be replaced by a tendency to buy foreign vessels. Issues pertaining to power, agency, colonialism and indigenous self-determination in the transformation of Pacific cultures are discussed.     

And Now They Are Gone: documenting the last sailing lighter of Nevis,West Indies

The island of Nevis in the eastern Caribbean was until recently home to a unique traditional‐built sailing lighter. The last two working vessels were hauled out for the last time only in 2001. The lighters of Nevis have a rich history and were built without plans, conforming to traditional proportions and practices. One of these vessels was carefully documented by the author in the grounds of the Horatio Nelson Museum in Charlestown before it completely succumbed to the elements. The vessels have since deteriorated and are gone. The maritime legacy of Nevis and the lighters are described. © 2012 The Author     

Analysis of the Gulf of Mexico’s Veracruz-Havana Route of La Flota de la Nueva España

During colonial times, an active maritime trade existed between Spain and the New World, with convoys sailing annually to and from Mexico and returning via Havana, Cuba, after wintering in America. A database constructed from secondary and open sources revealed that Spanish vessels were sailing over open waters along a northern path near Louisiana and a southern path across the central Gulf of Mexico. These routes were traversed in about one month and scheduling for the convoy was based on an understanding of the Americas’ meteorological and oceanographic climate. However, other factors may also have been involved in the directional layout of the routes. Today these ancient routes crisscross planning areas for oil and gas lease sales in the US Exclusive Economic Zone and the information presented in this article may aid in identifying areas where historic shipwrecks may lie. Maps and documents found during this study helped piece together the evolution of our understanding of the Gulf of Mexico surface circulation and how this knowledge influenced sailing during colonial times.     

A Cognitive Approach to Extant Boat Structure in Goa,India

This article presents information derived from unfunded fieldwork undertaken between 2008 and 2014 in Goa, India. Traditional boat structure is understood in the context of the use of local materials in response to climatic, geophysical, and cultural factors. Expanded and unexpanded logboats are shown to affect differently the pirogues based on them. The outrigger is not used as a sailing aid. Small sailed boats with sewn strakes on a keel‐plank are compared with 19th‐century records. Simple techniques are used on larger sewn and metal‐fastened vessels still being built. Today some factors combine to compromise traditional construction, while others are bringing about the demise of the vessels themselves.     

A provenance study of Mycenaean pottery from Northern Israel

The occurrence of imported Mycenaean pottery in the Late Bronze Age southern Levant is one of the most conspicuous aspects of Eastern Mediterranean trade connections during this period. A group of 183 Mycenaean pottery vessels from 14 sites in northern Israel, from both coastal and inland settlement contexts were analyzed by Neutron Activation Analysis. The results indicate that the vast majority of these vessels have a similar profile and can be provenanced to the north-eastern Peloponnese or more specifically, to the Mycenae/Berbati workshop in the Argolid. Possible interpretations of these results are presented and discussed against the historical and cultural background of the Late Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean.     

The principles of demonstration and tekmeriodic proofs in the late-antique commentary tradition

I argue that Aristotle’s late-antique commentators read into his theory of demonstration the notion of tekmeriodic proofs in attempt to integrate into the theory of demonstration the assumption that the principles of demonstration should be evident. In so doing, I trace the late antique commentators’ view to Alexander of Aphrodisias’ discussion of the principles of demonstration, showing how his assumption that the principles of demonstration should be evident underlies their notions of tekmeriodic proofs.     

The 19th‐Century Akko 1 Shipwreck,Israel: hull‐construction report

The Akko 1 shipwreck was found in 4 m of water inside the ancient harbour of Akko, Israel, and was fully recorded under water. Several hull‐components were retrieved and documented on land, as well as all the finds. The results of the archaeological research and the study of the historical background suggest that the Akko 1 shipwreck is the remains of an eastern Mediterranean naval auxiliary brig, built at the end of the first quarter of the 19th century, and sailing under the Egyptian flag. The ship was apparently wrecked during the 1840 naval bombardment of Akko. © 2012 The Authors     

The Mediterranean Group II: analyses of vessels from Etruscan contexts in northern Italy

A large number of Mediterranean Group vessels were recovered at the Etruscan site of Spina in northern Italy and dated from the 6th to the 3rd century BC. In this work a number of vessels belonging to the so-called “Group II” were analysed. The samples are mainly Alabastra, Oinochoai, Amphoriskoi, and Hydriai, in general opaque and deeply coloured. The aims of this study are: 1) to characterize these samples since there is a lack of data in literature regarding Mediterranean Group II; and 2) to compare the data obtained with that of glass for previous centuries (Mediterranean Group I) recovered at the same site in order to establish whether they could have the same origin. The chemical analyses of major and minor elements were carried out by electron microprobe and the nature of the opacifying and colouring agents was determined by X-ray diffraction. The sample set is relatively homogeneous and most of the samples can be classified as Low Magnesium Glass produced with natron and a calcareous silicatic sand. The XRD analyses proved the use of lead antimonates in the manufacture of yellow decorations and of calcium antimonates in the white and light blue decorations. The consistency of the chemical compositions of Mediterranean Groups I and II samples makes it possible to hypothesize a common origin.     

古代希腊罗马的周航记及其功用

随着大殖民运动和海上贸易的发展,不同地区间人员交往日渐频繁,公元前6世纪,出现了记录地中海航线及其周边地区的港口市镇、水文状况、避难地、沿岸物资、人文风情及政治状况等内容的周航记。此类作品具有早期散文的基本特征,其语言简单、句子短小、很少修饰。一般认为,周航记是古代希腊罗马海员和船长的海上航行指南。但是,结合此类作品的成书过程、作者的写作意图和身份、可能的受众读者,加之与中世纪航海图鉴比较,我们可知周航记并非海上航行指南,而是旅行指南或货物购销指南。     

Modeling distance with time in ancient Mediterranean seafaring: a GIS application for the interpretation of maritime connectivity

Investigations of Mediterranean connectivity have increasingly turned toward maritime landscape models to frame questions of seaborne exploration, marine resource exploitation, trade and exchange, and seafaring culture. Environmental and technological parameters are consistently acknowledged as crucial for understanding when and why different relationships developed across the sea, but their formal employment in the modeling and interpretation of maritime space remains quite limited. The methodology outlined here utilizes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to integrate environment and technology as analytical tools for exploring the complexity of seaborne connectivity. Focusing on sailing days as practical units of distance and using an Archaic Greek shipwreck off Turkey as a case study, this preliminary model demonstrates how a more nuanced spatial approach can inform the human geography and socioeconomic structures of ancient maritime interaction.     

Examining dispersal mechanisms for the translocation of chicken (Gallus gallus) from Polynesia to South America

DNA sequencing and radiocarbon dates from the archaeological site of El Arenal-1 (Arauco Peninsula, south central Chile) suggest that Polynesians may have introduced chicken (Gallus gallus) to South America prehistorically (A.D. 1300–1420). The Chilean specimen identified has the exact same amplified mtDNA pattern as samples recovered from archaeological sites in Samoa and Tonga, but is only one base different from prehistoric chicken samples from Tonga (n = 1), Niue (n = 1), Easter Island (n = 1 of 6), and Hawai'i (n = 1). To examine the possible dispersal mechanisms of chicken between Polynesian islands and the Americas, we conducted computer simulations of seafaring from these six island groups and the Tuamotus, as well as return voyages. Simulation results from sailed vessels suggest that in certain months, landfall on the Pacific Coast of South America from Samoa and Tonga was fairly successful at around 40% (particularly in March for the former and January/February for the latter). For Niue, sailed vessels were 21% successful in January with only 2% success in December. Sailed vessels from the Tuamotus (a proxy for closer island groups to the west with evidence for chicken such as the Cook Islands) were successful in January and December, with 15% and 23% of the vessels making landfall in South America. Vessels sailing from all simulations heading east from Easter Island resulted in landfall. Hawai'i had only a 1% success rate if sailing in January, but high numbers of vessels reached southern Mexico and Central America in August and September. Most landfalls occurred much farther north than Chile, in Ecuador and Peru. Unsuccessful voyages from all of the islands other than Easter Island and Hawai'i often made landfall on islands to the east. Return voyages from Chile were not possible or extremely rare during most times of the year. Overall, seafaring simulations suggest that Polynesians may not have initially landed in close proximity to El Arenal-1—contemporaneous or even earlier archaeological evidence of translocated chicken remains may indeed be found further north. In addition, if Polynesians found it difficult or impossible to return to their homeland, the possibility exists that co-mingling between Polynesians and South American groups resulted in offspring that carried an admixture of genetic traits.