The Multi Nearest Neighbor Distance Method for Analyzing the Compound Effect of Infrastructural Elements on the Distribution of Activity Points

We propose a statistical method to analyze the compound effect of infrastructural elements (such as stations, arterial streets, and lakes) on the distribution of activity points (such as retail stores) over a region. First, we formulate a function that explicitly shows the compound effect of infrastructural elements. Second, we show an efficient computational method for estimating this compound function from data. Third, we develop multivariate statistical methods for testing several hypotheses about these compound effects. Last, we examine the compound effect of arterial streets and subway stations on the distribution of “high-class” apartment buildings in Sumida-Kohto, Tokyo.     

The K‐Function Method on a Network and Its Computational Implementation

This paper proposes two statistical methods, called the network K‐function method and the network cross K‐function method, for analyzing the distribution of points on a network. First, by extending the ordinary K‐function method defined on a homogeneous infinite plane with the Euclidean distance, the paper formulates the K‐function method and the cross K‐function method on a finite irregular network with the shortest‐path distance. Second, the paper shows advantages of the network K‐function methods, such as that the network K‐function methods can deal with spatial point processes on a street network in a small district, and that they can exactly take the boundary effect into account. Third, the paper develops the computational implementation of the network K‐functions, and shows that the computational order of the K‐function method is O(n²_Q log n_Q) and that of the network cross K‐function is O(n_Q log U3Q), where n_Q is the number of nodes of a network.     

河南省人口分布与乡镇可达性空间耦合特征

人口作为区域发展的内在因素,交通可达性提高将有利于促进人口或劳动力要素的自由流动和优化配置。在考虑土地利用及地形因素的基础上,采用包含乡村道的交通网络数据集,应用改进的成本距离计算方法,分析河南省乡镇可达性及其分布特征;通过乡镇可达性与人口密度的空间叠加,揭示人口分布与可达性的空间耦合特征。结果表明：①各乡镇可达性总体呈现明显的圈层分布,可达性值由内向外逐渐降低;时段越短,内部差异越大,交通指向越明显。②乡镇可达性与人口密度在各时间圈呈现正相关关系,可达性与人口分布集聚产生作用的最大时间距离为1.5h。③人口与交通可达性的空间耦合呈现较明显的半环状分布,社会经济指向性明显。④交通可达性对人口变化的影响具有时间阶段性和区域差异性。     

Analysis of a Distribution of Point Events Using the Network‐Based Quadrat Method

This study proposes a new quadrat method that can be applied to the study of point distributions in a network space. While the conventional planar quadrat method remains one of the most fundamental spatial analytical methods on a two‐dimensional plane, its quadrats are usually identified by regular, square grids. However, assuming that they are observed along a network, points in a single quadrat are not necessarily close to each other in terms of their network distance. Using planar quadrats in such cases may distort the representation of the distribution pattern of points on a network. The network‐based units used in this article, on the other hand, consist of subsets of the actual network, providing more accurate aggregation of the data points along the network. The performance of the network‐based quadrat method is compared with that of the conventional quadrat method through a case study on a point distribution on a network. The χ² statistic and Moran's I statistic of the two quadrat types indicate that (1) the conventional planar quadrat method tends to overestimate the overall degree of dispersion and (2) the network‐based quadrat method derives a more accurate estimate on the local similarity. The article also performs sensitivity analysis on network and planar quadrats across different scales and with different spatial arrangements, in which the abovementioned statistical tendencies are also confirmed.     

Railway labour and the geography of collective bargaining: the Midland Railway strikes of 1879 and 1887

Focusing on Midland Railway (MR) strikes in the 1870s and 1880s, this paper examines how the geographical properties of railway work shaped the conduct of collective action. It examines three sites of contestation within the industry discussed in terms of network and organisational spaces. These are considered in terms of the relative power of workers and managers to exploit the strategic resources available for them to conduct industrial action. The paper examines why it was so difficult for railway workers to pursue industrial action in the 19th century. It concludes by arguing that a key factor is railway companies power to define and redefine the spatial scale of railway labour variously at national, regional and local scales each configured in such a way as to hold railway workers in place.     

A Statistical Method for Analyzing the Spatial Relationship between the Distribution of Activity Points and the Distribution of Activity Continuously Distributed over a Region

This paper shows a statistical method for analyzing the spatial relationship between the distributions of two different kinds of activity in a region. One kind of activity is discretely distributed as points in a region (such as the distribution of retail stores), and the other kind of activity is continuously distributed over the region (such as the distribution of population). First, three models representing the relationship between the above two distributions are formulated. Second, statistical methods for fitting these models to data are developed and the measures of fitness are proposed. Third, using these measures, the relationship between the distributions of thirty-seven kinds of retail stores and the distribution of population is examined in a suburb of Osaka in Japan.     

New Indices for the Existing City-Centers Streets Network Reliability and Availability Assessment in Earthquake Emergency

During earthquake emergencies in existing city-centers, streets network permits inhabitants to reach safe areas, and rescuers to access damaged zones and help population. However, the network can suffer from blocks due to debris of collapsed or heavily damaged buildings. Understanding urban fabric modifications and classifying elements vulnerability are fundamental steps while dealing with risk-assessment and risk-reduction strategies. This article offers a first quick approach for assessing seismic vulnerability of paths network by considering interferences with building heritage damages. Quick data about existing urban fabric (e.g., buildings typology; streets and buildings geometries) are combined for developing new vulnerability indices for streets network. The earthquake macroseismic intensity is introduced for evaluating probable street blockages and summarizing the overall rating of risks in critical network locations, thus intensity that is not included in other current quick methods for streets-building interference is here taken into account. Risk-reduction strategies based on the proposed indices could minimize the interventions on architectural heritage, maximizing the safety of evacuees. These new indices could be combined with traditional assessment of buildings vulnerability, and evaluations on pedestrians’ and vehicles evacuation flows, for evaluating management strategies.     

铁路与近代郑州城市空间结构变动及功能演变

平汉、陇海铁路相继筑通并在郑州交汇,为郑州城市的成长提供了前所未有的历史机遇及新生动力机制,城市的发展态势、空间结构、外在景观及城市功能均发生显著变化。大量人流、物流的汇聚,使火车站附近区域快速发展,并在火车站与老城区间形成了功能鲜明、以商品贸易为导向的新市街,城市空间大为拓展。郑州城市由老城区向火车站聚集发展,火车站和新市街逐渐成为新的生活中心,改变了以官府衙门和寺庙为重心的传统城市布局,城市空间结构随之变容。基于商业贸易对交通的需要,郑州城市平面与铁路沿线呈辐射状延伸,依托铁路形成新的功能分区,城市功能由此转换,交通功能得以彰显。     

A Statistical Method for Analyzing the Relative Location of Points in a Bounded Region

This paper develops a statistical method for analyzing the relative location of points in a bounded region. The location of points in relation to the center of the region in which they are located is discussed. Four spatial objects called reference objects are defined to represent the relative location: (1) the boundary, (2) skeleton, (3) nucleus, and (4) global center. The distribution of distance between points and a reference object yields a cumulative distribution function (CDF). Comparison of CDFs for a reference object allows us to analyze whether the points tend to be located close to the reference object or, for instance, whether the points are clustered around the center of the region. The significance of the CDF is statistically tested by Monte Carlo simulation. The method proposed is applied to the distribution of restaurants in retail clusters.     

‘Affirmative Signalling’: Dickens’s Railway Journalism and Victorian Risk Society

This essay explores Charles Dickens’s railway journalism of the 1850s and 1860s and its differences from his more well-known fictional accounts of the British railway network. While fictional works such as Dombey and Son and ‘The Signalman’ emphasize the catastrophic aspects of railway accidents, Dickens’s journalism in Household Words and All the Year Round examines the modern systematicity of the railway network, which by its nature as system, necessitated accidents on the lines. The essay incorporates theoretical readings of risk by Ulrich Beck and Paul Virilio into its critical assessment of Dickens’s railway journalism. Fundamentally, it aims to demonstrate that Dickens’s railway journalism illuminates the complexity of Victorian narratives of technological and bureaucratic industrial and transport systems by prioritizing the global dimensions of systematic accidents over the period’s tendencies to focus merely on local accidental events.     

长江三角地区高速公路网络与城镇体系空间结构的分形研究

测算了长三角地区高速公路网络和城镇体系空间结构的长度维数,分枝维数、集聚维数、网格维数、关联维数等分形维数。研究表明,长三角地区:(1)高速公路网已具备分形结构特征,并以上海市为中心区域按自相似性向外延展;但路网密度尚未饱和,有待进一步加强,在连通性上还有更大发展空间;(2)城镇体系分布表现出自相似性结构,总体上仍呈空间集聚格局;但是基于220个县级城镇单位的随机分布出现了非向心性态势,说明城镇体系与高速公路网络尚未实现整合,网络需要完善;(3)地级以上城市之间的高速公路网络的联通度已经达到了甚至超过了极限水平。     

European Green Deal necropolitics: Exploring ‘green’ energy transition,degrowth & infrastructural colonization

This article critically examines the GND (Green New Deal) platform by exploring the reality of energy development under the European Green Deal (EGD). Taking a special interest in degrowth positions on energy development, the article argues that the European Green Deal is an exercise in necropolitics; intensifying market relationships, extraction, and infrastructural colonization. The article proceeds by reviewing and discussing recent environmental justice and degrowth positions on energy infrastructural development. The methodology outlines desk-based research on resource extraction as well as on the European energy markets. This accompanies multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork, charting environmental conflicts along a 400kv high-tension power line. This line goes across France, Catalonia and Southern Spain, stretching into Morocco and occupied Western Sahara. Unconventional research techniques, such as hitchhiking, enabled mobility and expanding the informal interview pool. Outlining the objectives of the EGD, the next section examines three aspects of its necropolitics. First, necropolitical economy reveals the reality of energy market liberalization under the EGD. Second, necropolitical extraction examines the expansion of mining and mineral processing, which are necessary for the EGD and ‘mainstream’ GNDs. Third, necropolitical operation reveal the reality of ‘a rapid rollout of renewable energy deployment’ by examining infrastructure conflicts along a 400kv power line between France and Spain. The process of infrastructural colonization is detailed, which also introduces different land defender perspectives on degrowth. Affirming the argument that the EGD is an exercise in necropolitics, the conclusion discusses important ways to expand degrowth, energy ecologies and real energy transition.     

Density and dispersion: the co-development of land use and rail in London

This article examines the changes that occurred in the railnetwork and density of population in London during the 19thand 20th centuries. It aims to disentangle the ‘chickenand egg’ problem of which came first, network or landdevelopment, through a set of statistical analyses clearly distinguishingevents by order. Using panel data representing the 33 boroughsof London over each decade from 1871 to 2001, the research findsthat there is a positive feedback effect between populationdensity and network density. Additional rail stations (eitherUnderground or surface) are positive factors leading to subsequentincreases in population in the suburbs of London, while additionalpopulation density is a factor in subsequently deploying morerail. These effects differ in central London, where the additionalaccessibility produced by rail led to commercial developmentand concomitant depopulation. There are also differences inthe effects associated with surface rail stations and Undergroundstations, as the Underground was able to get into central Londonin a way that surface rail could not. However, the two networkswere weak (and statistically insignificant) substitutes foreach other in the suburbs, while the density of surface railstations was a complement to the Underground in the center,though not vice versa.     

Railways as a Factor of Change in the Distribution of Population in Spain, 1900–1970

Abstract

The central focus of this work is to test a new methodology to measure the impact of the railway on the distribution of population, in this case in Spain. To achieve this, it was necessary to previously integrate data relating to population and railway lines into a geographical information system. The result was a spatial database that includes population data from homogeneous census series obtained for the municipal scale and the evolution of the railway network in service at corresponding points in time. This allowed the authors to apply spatial-temporal analysis. By so doing, this work constitutes an analysis of a new methodology, as they used exploratory spatial data analysis and geographically weighted regression to detect spatial patterns and estimate the influence of the railway and distance from the coast on population change. The results obtained show that the influence of the railway was very pronounced in some areas, while in others it was just one of the factors that could explain major changes in population distribution.     

Testing Transferability: Quantitative Evaluation of Labor Market Area Definition Methods in Three Contrasting Countries

Sub-national economic policies increasingly use labor market areas (LMAs) rather than administrative areas for analysis and implementation. How a set of LMAs was defined influences the results of such analyses, and so accurate policy delivery needs appropriately defined LMAs. Multinational bodies need comparable LMA definitions in many countries, calling for a definition method that is transferable across national boundaries. This article applies quantitative metrics to evaluate LMAs defined in three contrasting countries by three methods that represent the main methodological approaches. The deductive approach—based on a center and hinterland—is too inflexible to deal with differing geographical circumstances and cannot cope with statistical zones that are very small, or do not respect settlement structure. The alternative inductive methods tested define appropriate LMAs in each country, with the newer method performing slightly better in statistical terms. The article also exemplifies the usefulness of the metrics for comparisons of alternative regionalizations.     

高铁沿线旅游流网络结构及其互动关系研究——以合福高铁沿线地区为例

利用复杂网络分析方法，对合福高铁沿线城市和景区两个尺度上的旅游流网络结构和互动关系进行研究。结果表明：①合福高铁沿线旅游流网络规模大，覆盖面积广，但网络密度极低，具有显著的"中心-外围"结构；②合福高铁沿线核心旅游城市和重点旅游景区在网络中的功能突出、角色重要，其中高能级景区表现出较强的辐射效应，对周边节点具有较强的带动作用；③合福高铁沿线旅游景区之间已经形成了"一超多强"、"双核互动"和"单节点"三种合作关系，但网络中的合作关系受行政边界的屏蔽仍十分明显。     

Regionalism and Nationalism in the Railway Cartography of Mid-Nineteenth Century Germany

This article concerns German railway cartography in the mid-nineteenth century and its effects on spatio-political perceptions. The evolution of a railway system in Germany, from isolated single routes into national and ultimately international networks, has been customarily linked to the political issue of unification in 1871. The infrastructural changes triggered the introduction of new maps and map signs, which overshadowed other national and political signs and should not be seen as a simple means to a nationalist end. By examining the developing iconography of railways and railway networks, I argue that railways were a cause of deterritorialization for regions and states and for the vision of a unified Germany.     

Probabilistic Regionalization via Evidence Accumulation with Random Spanning Trees as Weak Spatial Representations

Spatial clusters contain biases and artifacts, whether they are defined via statistical algorithms or via expert judgment. Graph-based partitioning of spatial data and associated heuristics gained popularity due to their scalability but can define suboptimal regions due to algorithmic biases such as chaining. Despite the broad literature on deterministic regionalization methods, approaches that quantify regionalization probability are sparse. In this article, we propose a local method to quantify regionalization probabilities for regions defined via graph-based cuts and expert-defined regions. We conceptualize spatial regions as consisting of two types of spatial elements: core and swing. We define three distinct types of regionalization biases that occur in graph-based methods and showcase the use of the proposed method to capture these types of biases. Additionally, we propose an efficient solution to the probabilistic graph-based regionalization problem via performing optimal tree cuts along random spanning trees within an evidence accumulation framework. We perform statistical tests on synthetic data to assess resulting probability maps for varying distinctness of underlying regions and regionalization parameters. Lastly, we showcase the application of our method to define probabilistic ecoregions using climatic and remotely sensed vegetation indicators and apply our method to assign probabilities to the expert-defined Bailey's ecoregions.     

Infrastructural territorialisations: Mega-infrastructures and the (re)making of Kenya

This paper, based on historical and contemporary dynamics of railway infrastructures in Kenya, analyses how mega-infrastructures are central in state practices of infrastructural territorialisation – an infrastructure-based production of territoriality as a historically and geographically specific form of spatio-political order and organisation, imbued with social tensions, stemming from the state-led imposition of a techno-politics onto its territory. Focusing on territorial and political objectives of the state advanced through the Uganda Railway and the Standard Gauge Railway, the paper demonstrates how both of these projects have been central in colonial and contemporary practices of infrastructural territorialisation, albeit in mercurial ways that do not fully represent original techno-political intensions of the state. This discussion, first, highlights how megaprojects – although primarily analysed by recent geographical scholarship as advancing contemporary geographies of global capitalism – also contingently coalesce with state (re)territorialisation practices. Second, undertaking these analyses in the Kenyan context, the paper shows how, despite shared historical dynamics of contingent state territorialisation – and the reconstitution of racial and socio-economic inequalities, advanced through megaprojects that in Kenya are socially interpreted through historical experiences of colonialism – current infrastructural territorialisations are also different; whilst the colonial territorialisation of Kenya emerged as relatively unchallenged, its present state territory-making is undermined by both the global character of megaprojects and the external actors that the state relies on for its practices of infrastructural territorialisation.     

A Hybrid Framework for Space–Time Modeling of Environmental Data. 环境数据时空建模的混合框架

The space–time autoregressive integrated moving average (STARIMA) model family provides useful tools for modeling space–time processes that exhibit stationarity (or near stationarity) in space and time. However, a more general method for routine use and efficient computation is needed to model the nonlinearities and nonstationarities of environmental space–time series. This article presents a hybrid framework combining machine learning and statistical methods to address this issue. It uses an artificial neural network (ANN) to extract global deterministic (nonlinear) space–time trends and a STARIMA model to extract local stochastic space–time variations in data. A four‐stage procedure is proposed for analyzing and modeling space–time series. The proposed framework and procedures are applied to forecast annual average temperature at 137 national meteorological stations in China. The results demonstrate that the hybrid framework achieves better forecasting accuracy than the STARIMA model alone. This finding suggests that the combination of machine learning and statistical methods provides a very powerful tool for analyzing and modeling space–time series of environmental data that have strong spatial nonlinear and nonstationary components.