EVIDENCE FOR THE MIXING OF FATS AND WAXES IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL CERAMICS

Lipid residues from two Late Saxon/early medieval ceramic vessels recovered from excavations at West Cotton, Raunds, Northamptonshire, U.K., have been investigated by high-temperature gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The solvent extracts of sherds sampled from different points on each vessel (i.e., base, body and rim) were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively and compounds were identified which were characteristic of beeswax and animal fat. Furthermore, by determining the sites of accumulation of the specific lipid types and their concentrations in different parts of the vessels it can be inferred that the beeswax was added to the vessels prior to the addition of the fat. It was concluded that the two vessels performed different functions in antiquity.     

REDEFINING NEANDERTHALS AND ART: AN ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATION OF THE MULTIPLE SPECIES MODEL FOR THE ORIGIN OF BEHAVIOURAL MODERNITY

Since the late 1990s, a number of specialists have proposed a ‘multiple species model’ to explain the origins of behavioural modernity. This model establishes that most of the traits defining modern behaviour, including ornaments and art, are not exclusive to modern humans, but arose among anatomically ‘non‐modern’ populations, like the late Neanderthals of Europe. This paper proposes that the emergence of this multiple species model is related to conceptual changes in the definitions of ‘Neanderthals’ and ‘art’. In the first place, Neanderthals, once characterized as apish creatures lacking intelligence, are now considered by many as complex cognitive people capable of modern behaviour, including the ability to create symbolic and artistic representations. In the second place, personal ornaments, once trivialized as ‘trinkets’, are recognized today as artistic representations and as symbolically valued as other prehistoric artworks. These redefinitions of Neanderthals and personal ornaments reflect not only the multiple species model but also some of the recent debates concerning the origins of symbolic behaviour.     

AN ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITIONAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODEL ARCHAEOLOGICAL GLASSES IN AN ACID BURIAL MATRIX

The degradation mechanisms of glass in a buried context result in surfaces that have been depleted in various elements. The stability of the glass is primarily affected by the burial environment and the glass composition. However, in all archaeological glasses, the corroded layer that is formed on the surface tends to be low in alkalis, high in silica and lacking in cohesion. The extent to which the material has degraded, along with the physical nature of the corrosion, has a profound effect upon a wide range of factors affecting the stability of artefacts, as well as the choice of conservation techniques to be employed. This study has a number of objectives: determination of the morphology of the surface of the leached layer in glasses of two different compositions with different surface finishes; examination of the transition between the corroded material and the unaffected substrate; and investigation of concentration profile of different elements within the surface layers, as a function of depth. The study uses two glasses, fabricated under laboratory conditions, to replicate two common glass types found in the historical environment; a soda–lime–silica glass typical of those found in the Roman period throughout the Mediterranean and northwestern Europe, and high‐lime–potash glasses typical of those of Western Europe in the late medieval period. Three different surfaces have been prepared to mimic alternative manufacturing techniques such as blown, cast and ground surfaces for each composition. The glasses have been corroded under controlled laboratory conditions to replicate the buried environment. Imaging and chemical information is obtained using SEM–EDX and morphological information using IFM to produce 3‐D mapping from topographical surfaces.     

QUANTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF LIPID IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL CERAMICS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SAMPLING POTSHERDS FOR ORGANIC RESIDUE ANALYSIS AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF VESSEL USE

Organic residue analysis has been performed on 62 reconstructed vessels from a single archaeological site (Rounds, Northamptonshire, U.K.). In order to establish regions of lipid accumulation within a vessel, sherds were sampled from different parts of a vessel, for example base, body and rim, and submitted to lipid extraction procedures. The techniques of high-temperature gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were then used to analyse the sherd lipid extracts. The quantitative results obtained show differential accumulation and preservation of lipid in various parts of the same vessel. This latter observation has serious implications for the sampling of potsherds for organic residue analysis. Furthermore, the amount of absorbed lipid varies quite considerably between vessel types. On this basis, a new method is proposed for classifying vessel use by comparing the concentration of lipid present in different parts of individual vessels.     

RESEARCH REPORT: MAGNETIC INVESTIGATIONS AND THE AGE OF A MEDIEVAL KILN AT KUNGAHÄLLA (SOUTH‐WEST SWEDEN)*

The results from a magnetic survey and archaeomagnetic investigation of a medieval brick kiln at Kungahälla in Bohuslän (south‐west Sweden) are reported. Detailed magnetic total field and magnetic gradient measurements over known traces of the kiln showed marked local magnetic anomalies of up to 200 nT, revealing the rectangular shape of the kiln remains. Palaeomagnetic investigations of the remanent magnetization of 12 bricks from the kiln floor gave precise definitions of both the direction of the archaeomagnetic field [(D_m, I_m) = (66.7°, 8.8°), k = 655, α₉₅= 1.7°] and the palaeointensity [B_m= 69.0 ± 3.6 µT]. An archaeomagnetic date is obtained by comparing the direction of the archaeomagnetic field found in the kiln with a geocentral dipole‐transformation of the British master‐curve for secular variation. Of two possible archaeomagnetic dates (ad 1280 ± 50 or ad 1480 ± 50), the ad 1280 ± 50 age is in good accordance with the C‐14 ages and archaeological dates as well as with direct historical evidence, whereas a c. 100 years younger TL date appears to be too young.     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STRENGTHENING AND RETROFITTING MEASURES FOR UNREINFORCED BRICK MASONRY MODEL UNDER CYCLIC TESTING

An experimental study on half-scale brick-masonry models with different strengthening and retrofitting measures has been studied under cyclic loading in a quasi-static test facility. The strengthening measures undertaken for the studies axe the horizontal bond beam at the lintel and sill level with a combination of vertical reinforcement at corners and openings. The retrofitting measures studied are grouting with epoxy-sand-mortar and cement-grout-injection with welded wire mesh in the cracked region. The tests reveal that the horizontal bond beam at lintel level with vertical reinforcement is effective in reducing the cracking above the lintel level. The insertion of an additional sill-band signi-ficantly reduces the cracking in walls. The epoxy-sand-mortar techniques for retrofitting of cracked regions prove to be effective enough to restore the initial strength, stiffness and deformation capacity. Although specimen retrofitted with cement-grout-injection with welded wire mesh is effective to regain the ultimate strength yet the brittle failure is observed as the specimen is stressed beyond the elastic limit.     

SAND FOR ROMAN GLASS PRODUCTION: AN EXPERIMENTAL AND PHILOLOGICAL STUDY ON SOURCE OF SUPPLY*

This paper reports the results of an experimental study performed on Campanian littoral sand, together with a careful philological analysis of Pliny's text concerning the production of glass using the above sand in order to verify its suitability. Accurate chemical and mineralogical characterization of sand samples and experimental glasses was carried out, proving the unsuitability of sand for glass production in its original state. Taking into account both the results of the philological analysis of Pliny's text and the mineralogical assemblage of the sand, a new hypothesis regarding Roman glass‐making technology is proposed and tested here. The technology implies the production of ‘quartz‐enriched’ sand by means of selective grindings according to the different degrees of hardness and cleavage of the mineralogical phases. Melting experiments, carried out on treated sand and in the temperature range compatible with Roman technology, yielded a glass with composition similar to those of typical Roman glasses. Therefore, new perspectives on the sources of supply of raw materials, hitherto debated, are opened up.     

THE COMPLEMENTARY USE OF NEUTRONS AND X‐RAYS FOR THE NON‐DESTRUCTIVE INVESTIGATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBJECTS FROM SWISS COLLECTIONS*

This paper shows the possibilities offered by the combined use of non‐destructive neutron and X‐ray beams in archaeological research on metallic finds. The following five artefacts from Swiss excavations were submitted to investigation, each with dedicated aims: a Roman sword, a Roman dagger, an Iron Age bucket, Iron Age spearheads and a Roman finger ring. The images obtained with both methods—neutrons and X‐rays—are discussed in length in this paper. The investigations took place at the Paul Scherrer Institute and the archaeologists who studied the objects come from the Universities of Lausanne and Zurich.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTERS AND MORTARS AS A TOOL IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES: THE CASE OF LARDIRAGO CASTLE IN PAVIA,NORTHERN ITALY*

Plasters and mortars from Lardirago Castle (Pavia, northern Italy) have been characterized by means of petrographical and chemical analyses in order to achieve technical and historical evidence of material production. The study focused on the oldest nucleus of the structure, where hidden plastered masonry has been discovered recently. Textural and compositional data of the binder and the aggregate fractions were collected by means of optical microscopy and electron microscopy coupled with microanalysis. These data permit the identification of building materials with similar technical and compositional characteristics, which can be related to different building phases.     

A COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING FATTY ACID CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS ACROSS POTSHERDS: A CASE STUDY USING LATE BRONZE AGE CANAANITE AMPHORAE*

Canaanite amphorae fragments in fabrics believed to be associated with the bulk transport of vegetable oils from the fourteenth‐century BC site of Amarna, Egypt, have been examined. A comparison is made between solvent extraction, saponification and the use of TMTFTH (m‐trifluoromethylphenyl)trimethylammomum hydroxide, used here for the combined extraction and derivatization of ceramic‐absorbed organic residues. Extracts were studied using gas chromatography and gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry. The extraction of fatty acids from small ceramic samples has established concentration gradients of absorbed organic matter from the inner to the outer surfaces of the sherds.     

BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF DEVELOPMENT AND LOCATION OF PRODUCTIVE FORCES IN THE NONCHERNOZEM ZONE OF THE RSFSR

A development strategy is proposed for the Nonchernozem zone of the European RSFSR, which is now the object of a major program of rural modernization (see S.G., March, April 1975). The principal factors affecting future strategy are geographical situation and physical setting, resource potential, level of economic development and settlement, availability of skilled labor and technical progress. The proposed strategy calls for focusing northern development on resource exploitation, fostering manufacturing development in the central oblasts outside the major industrial nodes, where industrial expansion should be restricted, and limiting industrial construction in the southern grain-growing oblasts to avoid diverting valuable agricultural land to nonfarm uses. The Nonchernozem zone will continue to be the nation's research and development center and aim at economic growth through intensive methods in view of a labor shortage.     

EVALUATION OF THE SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING RC BUILDINGS: II. A CASE STUDY FOR REGULAR AND IRREGULAR BUILDINGS

The results of a parametric study are presented, concerned with the evaluation of the structural overstrength, the global ductility and the available behaviour factor of existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings designed and constructed according to past generations of earthquake resistant design codes in Greece. For the estimation of these parameters, various failure criteria are incorporated in a methodology established to predict the failure mode of such buildings under planar response, as described in detail in a companion publication. A collection of 85 typical building forms is considered. The influence of various parameters is examined, such as the geometry of the structure (number of storeys, bay width etc.), the vertical irregularity, the contribution of the perimeter frame masonry infill walls, the period of construction, the design code and the seismic zone coefficient. The results from inelastic pushover analyses indicate that existing RC buildings exhibit higher overstrength than their contemporary counterparts, but with much reduced ductility capacity. The presence of perimeter infill walls increases considerably their stiffness and lateral resistance, while further reducing their ductility. Fully infilled frames exhibit generally good behaviour, while structures with an open floor exhibit the worst performance by creating a soft storey. Shear failure becomes critical in the buildings with partial height infills. It is also critical for buildings with isolated shear wall cores at the elevator shaft. Out of five different forms of irregularity considered in this study, buildings with column discontinuities in the ground storey exhibit the worst performance. Furthermore, buildings located in the higher seismicity zone are more vulnerable, since the increase of their lateral resistance and ductility capacity is disproportional to the increase in seismic demand.     

MULTI‐METHOD MARBLE PROVENANCE DETERMINATIONS: THE CARRARA MARBLES AS A CASE STUDY FOR THE COMBINED USE OF ISOTOPIC,ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE AND PETROGRAPHIC DATA*

A multi‐method approach, based on petrography, stable isotope data and electron spin resonance spectroscopy for assigning the provenance of white marbles, is presented. A total of 11 experimental variables has been used, including the quantitative measurement of the sample colour and its homogeneity. On this basis we attempt to distinguish the three main quarrying basins of the Carrara district, that is, Torano, Miseglia and Colonnata. Such discrimination, extremely uncertain on the basis of the single techniques, may be performed with acceptable confidence’ using a properly selected subset of six petrographic, isotopic and spectroscopic variables. The final resubstitution and jackknifed re‐assignment rates are, respectively, 85% and 81%. Inclusion of the remaining five variables into the classification rule does not improve the results, but simply increases data overinterpretation. The practical possibility of using such an approach for more general provenancing problems is considered.     

A TECHNOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF NINTH–TENTH CENTURY AD ABBASID BLUE‐AND‐WHITE WARE FROM IRAQ,AND ITS COMPARISON WITH EIGHTH CENTURY AD CHINESE BLUE‐AND‐WHITE SANCAI WARE*

Eight sherds of ninth–tenth century ad Abbaesid blue‐and‐white glazed earthenware, excavated in 1931 at Hira in western Iraq, were analysed using, variously, quantitative wavelength‐dispersive spectrometry (WDS) and energy‐dispersive spectrometry (EDS) in association with scanning electron microscopes (SEM), and semi‐quantitative X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). In order to compare the compositions of the cobalt pigments used, the glazes of seven complete vessels of eighth century ad Chinese Tang blue‐and‐white sancai were also analysed semi‐quantitatively using XRF. The Abbasid wares were shown to have used traditional Mesopotamian alkali–lime glazes applied to calcareous clay bodies. Half the glazes examined were opacified with tin oxide. Three types of blue decoration (i.e., raised; spreading; and flat, non‐spreading) were produced using a variety of formulations, including a mixture of cobalt pigment with lead oxide. The sources of the ores used for the cobalt pigments have not been identified. However, the analytical data showed that the cobalt ore used for the Abbasid blue‐and‐white ware could be distinguished from that used for the Tang blue‐and‐white sancai by its higher iron content and by the presence of a significant amount of zinc. The use of cobalt‐blue decoration on the ninth–tenth century ad Abbasid ware was anticipated in China by eighth century ad Tang blue‐and‐white sancai wares. However, whether its introduction by the Abbasid potters should be seen as an independent invention that followed the introduction of tin‐opacified glazes in Iraq, or whether it was influenced in some way by Chinese originals, is still unresolved.