Systematic Reworking of Lithics from Earlier Cultures in the Early Holocene of Dakhleh Oasis,Egypt

Abstract

A raw material form scarcely mentioned in the literature on lithic production—chipped stone artifacts manufactured by members of still earlier cultures—is used for a substantial portion of the toolkits in certain industries of Dakhleh Oasis, south-central Egypt. In one group of early Holocene (Masara) sites, the majority of double patinated tools are chunky burins, systematically manufactured from Levallois flakes and similar thick-sectioned older artifacts. Since fresh chert and other workable stone is available in the area, it appears that old, recycled lithics constitute the preferred raw material for these tool classes. The sites in question seem to be field camps where the burins were both made and used.     

Culinary Crafts and Foods in Southwestern Ethiopia: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Gamo Groundstones and Pottery

Few ethnoarchaeological studies have combined the production and use of groundstones and pottery as indicators of household variation in subsistence and socioeconomics. This ethnoarchaeological study explores how the Gamo people who live in southwestern Ethiopia interact with their culinary tools of pottery and groundstones. One of the unique cultural features of the Gamo is their strict caste system, which forces artisans such as potters and groundstone makers into a full-time specialization. This paper uses a chaîne opératoire analysis regarding groundstone and pottery production and then addresses their use by drawing from household studies from three Gamo communities. The analysis discusses the role that social hierarchy can have on cooking and craft variation within households. Thus, these artisans bring to life crafts that give the Gamo tools to create their daily subsistence, and these tools and foods allow us to explore two key archaeological issues: subsistence and socioeconomic variation of people’s households.     

Ethnoarchaeology and the Organization of Lithic Technology

Although the modern production and use of stone tools is rare, ethnoarchaeological research on this subject has provided important perspectives on methodological approaches to archaeological lithic analysis. Recent ethnoarchaeological research on lithics frequently takes the form of “cautionary tales,” warning against the primacy of functional variables most commonly invoked by lithic analysts. I argue that lithic ethnoarchaeology would benefit from a comparative organizational framework for explaining variation in patterns of stone tool use that takes into account the predictability and redundancy of the location and timing of technological activities. Understanding the underlying causes of modern patterns of stone tool use, in turn, offers a framework for exploring sources of lithic technological variation in the archaeological record. I also argue that technological analytical perspectives, such as the cha?ne opératoire and sequence of reduction approaches, can benefit from the insights gained through lithic ethnoarchaeological research, helping us define important analytical concepts and identify appropriate units of analysis.     

A crossbeam co-ordinate caliper for the morphometric analysis of lithic nuclei: a description,test and empirical examples of application

Over the last four decades, there has been surprisingly little advance in the quantitative morphometric analysis of Palaeolithic stone tools, especially compared to that which has taken place in biological morphometrics over a comparable time frame. In Palaeolithic archaeology's sister discipline of palaeoanthropology, detailed quantitative morphometric, geometric morphometric, and even 3D geometric morphometric analyses are now seen almost as routine. This period of relative methodological stasis may have been influenced by the lack of homologous landmarks on many lithic tools (essential for any comparative analysis), especially core-based technologies of the Lower Palaeolithic. Archaeological field conditions may also prohibit the use of expensive and delicate precision instruments in certain cases. Here we present a crossbeam co-ordinate caliper that – crucially – both geometrically locates and measures distances between morphologically homologous landmarks upon lithic nuclei via a single protocol. Intra- and inter-observer error tests provide evidence that error levels associated with the instrument fall within acceptable ranges. In addition, we present empirical examples of application in the form of a multivariate analysis of 55 discrete morphometric variables, and a 3D geometric morphometric analysis of co-ordinate landmark configurations derived from Pleistocene lithic nuclei (i.e. ‘cores’ sensu lato). We also introduce to lithic studies some techniques for the study of shape variation that have previously been used with success in biological morphometric analyses. We conclude that use of an instrument such as the crossbeam co-ordinate caliper may provide a useful adjunct to traditional techniques of lithic analysis, particularly in developing a quantitative morphometric approach.     

A NOVEL APPROACH TO STUDIES OF PREHISTORIC EXPLOITATION OF STONE TOOL MATERIALS USING MATERIAL COMPOSITION,SURFACE MORPHOLOGY,MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES*

For a comprehensive understanding of material exploitation in prehistory, we applied advanced analytical methods to Japanese prehistoric stone tool materials. Compositions, surface morphologies, microstructures and mechanical properties of the primary lithic materials were analysed. As a result of the tests on actual Palaeolithic artefacts, preferential material selection was observed based on composition, structure and other physical properties of the materials. Homogeneous materials composed of a single type of mineral—α‐quartz—were intentionally selected for Palaeolithic tools regardless of the type of rock. These materials unexceptionally present higher hardness and strength. Moreover, materials composed of extremely fine crystal grains of ~0.1 µm in size with highest hardness and strength were selectively used for sharp‐edged blades. These results lead us to the conclusion that quantitative and objective analyses will give us precise information on prehistoric materials, which will enable us to make an analytical approach to the comprehension of prehistoric exploitation of stone materials. This could eventually complement the traditional interpretation of material exploitation based on conventional petrological classifications.     

A tale of two sites: Functional site differentiation and lithic technology during the Late Pithouse period in the Mimbres area of Southwestern New Mexico

The raw materials from which stone tools are made can provide considerable information relevant to behavioral variation within a prehistoric population. By examining the stone used for tools from two different types of Late Pithouse period (A.D. 550-1000) residential sites from the Mimbres Mogollon area of Southwestern New Mexico, this paper illustrates how understanding the lithic landscape of a region provides a means to assess behavioral variation in stone procurement practices. The analysis indicates that the differences in mobility and economic pursuits between longer-term residential sites containing pit structures and a shorter-term seasonal residential site with ephemeral architecture structured the raw material procurement practices of site’s occupants. Pit structure sites were focused on agricultural pursuits and used a technology that centered on the production of informal tools fashioned from locally available raw materials. The seasonal residential site focused on wild resources and evidenced greater reliance on formal tool production using raw materials acquired from beyond the immediate vicinity of the site. Despite increasing sedentism and agricultural dependence of the region’s population, some portion of the population exercised seasonal mobility strategies and associated technological and behavioral practices more typical of hunting and gathering populations, suggesting a diverse socio-economic system within the region.     

Evidence for Maya Household Subsistence and Domestic Activities: Use-Wear Analysis of the Chipped Chert Assemblage from Pook’s Hill,Belize

Abstract

From 1999–2005, the Belize Valley Archaeological Reconnaissance Project excavated Pook’s Hill (PKH-1), a single plazuela group located in the Roaring Creek Valley, Cayo District, Belize. Artifacts recovered at Pook’s Hill date predominantly to the Late and Terminal Classic (A.D. 700–950) and can be stratigraphically segregated into two distinct occupation phases, namely a Late Classic (A.D. 700–830) and a Terminal Classic-Early Postclassic (A.D. 830–9507+) phase. The chipped chert and chalcedony tools from the two phases were included in a combined program of low- and high-power use-wear analysis to reconstruct aspects of the socioeconomy. The results of the analyses reveal that the site’s inhabitants produced and used both formal and informal tools for a wide variety of subsistence and domestic tasks, and for the production of some utilitarian items. Stone tool use-wear evidence and the recovery of small quantities of other artifacts suggest that the Maya from Pook’s Hill produced more valuable objects of bone, stone, and shell, although it is difficult to accurately identify craft-production activities at the site from the context of recovery. Despite some variation in the specific activities undertaken with the chipped stone tools over time, the organization of lithic technology at Pook’s Hill did not change significantly from the Late Classic into the Early Postclassic period.     

Experimentation in the Formation of Edge Damage: A New Approach to Lithic Analysis

Abstract

The paper describes a series of experiments recently carried out to test the formation of edge-damage on flaked stone tools which results from their being used in various tasks. Variables that were systematically tested include action, worked material, angle of the edge, and grip. The main criterion in distinguishing different patterns of damage was microflaking rather than abrasion in the form of striations and polish.

The results of these experiments may be applied to the identification of patterns of damage to the edges of prehistoric stone tools. The information gained from such microwear analysis may be used not only to provide details on the activities and settlement organization of prehistoric societies, but also to provide an important new dimension to lithic analysis in general. In lithic analysis, the main criteria of change have been the macromorphological features of the tools. It is our contention, however, that the additional information on the function of the tools, which is provided by microwear analysis, can contribute to the greater understanding of the processes of change in lithic assemblages and culture change as a whole.

The experimental program was designed to test the formation of edge-damage on implements manufactured in European chalk flint. It was to aid in the identification of wear patterns on lithic assemblages from the neolithic period in Central and Eastern Europe, a project in which the authors were involved. Its relevance, however, includes directly those assemblages of the post-Pleistocene period in temperate and Mediterranean Europe. The results of the experiments may also be useful, it is hoped, for lithic analysis in general, both in the Old and New World.     

Sedentism and economic change in the Balkan Neolithic

The effects of sedentism on economic behavior, with special reference to the activities involved in the exploitation of ceramic and lithic resources, are discussed. The context of the study is the late Neolithic of Southeast Europe. It is argued that the widespread establishment of sedentary communities in the Balkans was followed by changes in the production of pottery and stone tools, entailing the routine investment of increasing amounts of labor in most phases of production, increased complexity in the organization of production, and a more selective approach to resource exploitation. Ceramic and lithic production form an important part of the nonsubsistence side of the Neolithic economy, and an understanding of changes in this sphere of activity is crucial to a comprehension of the wider effects of sedentism on economic behavior.     

The Analysis of Stone Tool Procurement, Production, and Maintenance

Researchers who analyze stone tools and their production debris have made significant progress in understanding the relationship between stone tools and human organizational strategies. Stone tools are understood to be morphologically dynamic throughout their use-lives; the ever-changing morphology of stone tools is intimately associated with the needs of tool users. It also has become apparent to researchers that interpretations of lithic analysis are more productive when the unique contexts and situations for which lithic artifacts were made, used, modified, and ultimately discarded are considered. This article reviews the recent literature on stone tool production with an emphasis on raw material procurement, manufacturing techniques, and tool maintenance processes as they relate to adaptive strategies of toolmakers and users.     

Recent developments in the analysis of lithic artifacts

A review of recent research on lithic technology and functional analysis is presented. Our perception of the state of the art is based on a review of the literature published during the past three years and on the topics that were covered at conferences and workshops on lithic analysis. While the goals have essentially remained the same since the turn of the century, concerns with chronology and the classification of lithic artifacts have given way to studies that treat stone implements as products of a dynamic system of human behavior. In order to understand stone artifacts and the people that made and used them, archaeologists must understand theprocesses involved in the acquisition, production, exchange, and consumption of lithic artifacts. In the past ten years, experimental studies involving the manufacturing and use of stone tools have been integrated with studies of refitted or conjoined lithic artifacts and microwear analysis. The result is a much more dynamic view of the variability in assemblages of lithic artifacts. In this review, we focus on replication and technological analysis of chipped stone artifacts and microwear analysis, and consider the implications of this research.     

Defining and measuring reduction in unifacial stone tools

Observations pertaining to particular stages of the lithic chaîne opératoire, or reconstructions of the entire operational sequence at a particular site, can be used to develop a detailed understanding of past human cognitive capabilities, technological sophistication, mobility, and land use. The “reduction sequence” is a specific stage of the chaîne opératoire that many archaeologists have attempted to measure. Many of these attempts fail to recognize that “reduction” is a three-dimensional process, and thus should be measured with an appropriate three-dimensional unit: volume. This paper presents a new methodology for measuring and defining reduction in unifacial stone tools that reconstructs the original volume of a modified blank, allowing a realistic percentage of volume loss to be calculated. This new method is fast, precise, and very accurate.     

Molluscan Shell Knives and Experimental Cut-Marks on Bones

Abstract

Experimentation demonstrates that the retouched edges of molluscan shells can be used effectively as butchery knives in the absence of lithic raw materials and leave striations on bone surfaces that may be indistinguishable from cut-marks made by stone knives. The potential of such non-lithic cutting tools suggests one new possible category of early artifact, and may explain the presence of cut-marks on fossil bones in paleoenvironments where stone artifacts were absent or rare.     

Building an Experimental Comparative Reference Collection for Lithic Micro-Residue Analysis Based on a Multi-Analytical Approach

Residue analysis applied to stone tools is a useful aid for better understanding their past function and, by extension, reconstructing early human behaviour. However, if the nature of residues found on the lithic tools is misinterpreted, so will be our understanding of their archaeological context. As a consequence, correctly identifying residues in the domain of lithic studies is of paramount importance. With this main goal in mind, we analysed different experimental materials likely to have been involved in daily tasks in the prehistoric context (e.g. bone, wood, meat). Microscopic analyses were then carried out using two (comparable) techniques: Optical Light Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Also, energy dispersive X-rays spectroscopy (EDX or EDS) was applied to the experimental samples to determine their elemental composition. Advantages and disadvantages of both microscopic methods and their implications for correct residue identification are discussed. The distribution of residues on lithic surfaces is also considered. This study resulted in the construction of a data-set including both photographic material and EDX spectra for each residue analysed. The main result is that, compared to OLM scanning, SEM analyses highly improves the accuracy of residue identification.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL PETROLOGY AND THE ARCHAEOMETRY OF LITHIC MATERIALS*

For 50 years, archaeologists and physical scientists have been dating, determining the composition of and measuring stone tools, and reporting them in Archaeometry and many other journals. In Archaeometry specifically, the number of papers devoted to the analysis of lithic material has increased at least 30 times since 1958 and volume 1. This is a reflection not only of an increase in the number of scholars devoting their time to the archaeometry of stone, but also of increases in the quality and quantity of instrumental technology available to researchers in the field.     

Typological Classification,Attribute Analysis,and Lithic Variability

Abstract

A typological research strategy can distort the analysis of Upper Paleolithic stone tools because it is ill-equipped to distinguish stylistic and functional similarity. This lack can make the significance of formal stone tool types in either culture-historical or behavioral analysis ambiguous. “Attribute analysis,” as it is being developed with French Upper Paleolithic materials, is introduced as an alternative strategy. The stylistic and functional analysis of burins in three Upper Paleolithic cultures, the Perigordian VI, the Proto-Magdalenian , and the Magdalenian II-III, is presented as an example indicating the advantages of one approach over the other.     

Size and form in the analysis of flake debris: Review and recent approaches

Flake debris — the by-product of lithic reduction — is abundant, not subject to uncontrolled collection, and sometimes culturally diagnostic. Its greatest virtue, however, is in registering the kinds and amounts of toolmaking and tool-using behavior that curated tools themselves may not. Most debris studies emphasize formal dimensions, yet even the best approaches assume rather than demonstrate a relationship between behavior and formal variation. Moreover, the diversity of formal typologies hinders interassemblage comparison. Progress in debris analysis has two prerequisites: (1) a minimum attribute set for individual flakes and (2) the combination of formal and continuous approaches to variation. Preliminary study suggests that Ahler's mass-analysis model and log skew Laplace functions hold particular promise for behavioral interpretation from debris assemblages.     

Stone Tool Production of the Longshan Culture at the Liangchengzhen Site in Rizhao of Shandong

The manufacture of stone tools was one of the most important craft production activities in prehistoric human society. Previously, lack of sound evidence had made it too early to confirm whether or not stone tool production during the Longshan cultural period had already transformed from a primitive self-sufficient household mode of production to a specialized mode of production. Excavation of the site of the Longshan cultural site at Liangchengzhen in Rizhao, Shandong from 1998–2001 through meticulous field methods such as sieving and floatation yielded a large number of lithic reduction tools, ranging from grinding stones, stone hammers, and polishing stones to raw materials, semi-finished products, and lithic debitage of various sizes, resulting from the lithic reduction process. This excavation suggests that the Liangchenzhen site was a settlement site where the complete process of lithic reduction was practiced. Through comparison with contemporary large-scale excavated sites of the Longshan culture, it is suggested that the Area 1 at the Liangchengzhen site was a lithic reduction locality with a relatively high degree of specialization which was used for hundreds of years. It is possible that stone tool production had already advanced to a stage of relatively high specialization during the Longshan cultural period in the Haidai region.     

Neanderthal Shell Tool Production: Evidence from Middle Palaeolithic Italy and Greece

The vast majority of tools recovered from Palaeolithic sites are made of stone varieties. Only rarely do non-lithic implements come to light, let alone tools produced on marine mollusc shell. Interestingly, a good number of shell implements made on Callista chione and Glycymeris sp. valves have been reported from 13 Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) sites in southern peninsular Europe. Of these, more than 300 specimens display evidence of deliberate edge retouch. They are all considered products of Neanderthals and date from ~110?ka BP to perhaps ~50?ka BP. In this paper, we review the evidence for Mousterian shell tool production in Italy and Greece??the only two countries in which such tools have been securely identified??and present experimental results obtained in the effort to understand the production process and typo-functional role(s) of the artefacts. We examine the general provisioning pattern of raw materials, as well as the typological, species-related and chronological data pertinent to the production of shell tools by Neanderthals. The data suggest that the Mousterian shell scrapers are a response to poor availability of lithic raw material in the areas of occurrence, and may be best described as an extension of chipped stone technologies to specific types of marine shell, their form defined by an existing mental template. As such, they constitute evidence for refined adaptation strategies and advanced provisioning of resources amongst Neanderthals, and may lend further support to the idea that these hominids displayed a degree of complex behaviour.