Viking woollen square-sails and fabric cover factor

The discovery of the five scuttled Viking ships of Roskilde Fjord in Denmark and the subsequent excavation, preservation and analysis of the remains has initiated a programme of reconstructive archaeology led by the Viking Ship Museum of Roskilde in which four of the five hulls have now been reconstructed together with their rigs and square-sails. The reconstruction of the sails has been based on fragments of heavy woollen cloth found within the roof of Trondenes church in Norway dating to the mid-13th century. This paper uses the'cover-factor' modelling methods of modern textile engineering to analyse the'Viking' sail fabrics and assess their strength, resilience and performance in comparison with the linen sails from the wreck of the Vasa .     

Viking-Age Sails: Form and Proportion

Archaeological ship-finds have shed much light on the design and construction of vessels from the Viking Age. However, the exact proportions of their sails remain unknown due to the lack of fully preserved sails, or other definite indicators of their proportions. Key Viking-Age ship-finds from Scandinavia—the Oseberg Ship, the Gokstad Ship and Skuldelev 3—have all revealed traces of rigging. In all three finds, the keelson—with the mast position—is preserved, together with fastenings for the sheets and the tack, indicating the breadth of the sail. The sail area can then be estimated based on practical experience of how large a sail the specific ship can carry, in conjunction with hull form and displacement. This article presents reconstructions of the form and dimensions of rigging and sail based on the archaeological finds, evidence from iconographic and written sources, and ethnographic parallels with traditional Nordic boats. When these sources are analysed, not only do the similarities become apparent, but so too does the relative disparity between the archaeological record and the other sources. Preferential selection in terms of which source is given the greatest merit is therefore required, as it is not possible to afford them all equal value.     

The Sail of the Swedish Merchantman Jeanne‐Élisabeth,Wrecked off Montpellier,France, in 1755

A folded sail was found stowed in the hold of the Swedish‐registered merchantman Jeanne‐Élisabeth, which ran aground off Montpellier in a storm in 1755. Surviving sails from any period are rare. The structure of the recovered portion of sail and its associated cordage is described and discussed in the context of differing traditions and technological evolutions of the period. Recovery, recording and initial conservation techniques are discussed in an appendix . © 2011 The Authors     

Bai Jiao 1—the excavation of a Song Dynasty shipwreck in the Dinghai area, Fujian Province, China, 1995

The ships that sail the Southern Sea and south of it are like houses. When their sails are spread they are like great clouds in the sky… The big ship with its heavy cargo has naught to fear of the great waves, but in shallow water it comes to grief (cited in Guy, 1992: 18).     

The Mediterranean Lateen Sail in Late Antiquity

The Mediterranean lateen sailing rig has been studied since the early-to-mid-20th century. Recently-published depictions of sailing vessels rigged with lateen and settee sails, dating to the late-antique period, allow some of the principle characteristics of that rig to be established. This allows comparison with lateen- or settee-rigged vessels from both earlier and later periods. The sailing rigs depicted on other vessels can be identified and the level of technical continuity between the late-antique and medieval Mediterranean addressed. Finally it is possible to assess the extent to which the lateen sail was established in the Mediterranean by late antiquity.
© 2009 The Author     

Loose‐footed Sails of the Egyptian New Kingdom Ships

The relief from the temple of Ramesses III (1184–1153 BC) in Medinet Habu is often considered to be the most ancient representation of a brailed sail. According to many researchers, the loose‐footed sail and the system of brails were invented in the ancient countries of the Syro‐Canaanite coast and were later adopted by the Ancient Egyptians. However, iconographic material from Ancient Egypt testifies to the indigenous origin of a loose‐footed sail. The article presents an unknown relief from the Amarna period (1352–1336 BC) that further supports this hypothesis.     

Bird Remains from Two Sites on the Red Sea Coast and some Observations on Medullary Bone

This paper discusses the bird remains found in the Roman levels of the military fort of ‘Abu Sha’ ar and of the ancient harbour of Berenike. Food procurement was essentially based on wild resources at ‘Abu Sha’ ar and this is also reflected in the bird remains. Only 28 per cent of the bird bones at the low status site of ‘Abu Sha’ ar are from domestic fowl, whereas at the commercially important town of Berenike 92 per cent were. Medullary bone was present in 66 per cent of the 161 chicken remains at Berenike. The occurrence and formation of medullary bone in modern domestic fowl is discussed and possibilites from its study in the chicken remains from Berenike are presented.     

Sailing and Sailing Rigs in the Ancient Mediterranean: implications of continuity,variation and change in propulsion technology

Ships and boats form the foundations of the maritime connectivity that is a central part of our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean. While the general chronological sequence of sail and sailing‐rig development is well established, the implications are less‐well discussed. This article sets out how sails and sailing rigs developed in antiquity, with emphasis on the Greco‐Roman world. Subsequently, instances of innovation are defined. Why specific pieces of maritime technology were, or were not, widely adopted is considered. Long‐term technological continuity can be comprehended, and a shared maritime culture of sailing in the ancient Mediterranean is suggested.     

The Linen Industry of Shropshire

Abstract

The discovery in 1975 of part of Charles Bage's iron framed Castlefields flax mill led the author to study Shropshire's other linen factories and the domestic manufacture of linen and ropes during the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The manufacture of linen by cottagers and farmers from home grown hemp survived, alongside the factories, into the nineteenth century. The hempen cloth produced in Shropshire was rarely sold at markets or fairs, and was made mainly by country families for their own use. The survival of such a cottage industry into the nineteenth century was rare in England, and the existence of a workforce skilled in the preparation and manufacture of hemp and flax was probably one of the factors which influenced Shropshire entrepreneurs to manufacture linen in their factories, rather than cotton.     

The Hawārī of Socotra, Yemen

Hawārī are traditionally logboats carved from a single tree into a double-ended vessel which can be propelled by either sails or paddle. Hawārī can be found throughout the Indian Ocean from India through to East Africa, yet little is known about this ubiquitous vessel. The aims of this research are to address this lacuna in our knowledge by documenting the rich source of hawārī present on the island of Socotra, Yemen.
© 2009 The Author     

Crossing the Indian Ocean before the Periplus: a comparison of pottery assemblages at the sites of Sumhuram (Oman) and Tissamaharama (Sri Lanka)

There is a long tradition of studies of the Indian Ocean trade focused almost exclusively on the trade between Roman Egypt and India. Less attention has been paid to the formative period of early historical long‐distance trade in the Indian Ocean. The aim of this paper is to discuss some aspects of the development of this trade, based on an analysis of the South Asian pottery found at two different settlements: Sumhuram in the Sultanate of Oman and Tissamaharama in Sri Lanka.     

Lisht as a New Kingdom Glass‐Making Site with Its Own Chemical Signature

Lisht is one of a few New Kingdom sites with known glass‐working debris. Here, we present evidence for the primary production of glass at Lisht, including crucible fragments and semi‐finished glass. We also provide 12 new chemical analyses of glass from Lisht, including trace elements. We argue that the glass made at Lisht has a specific chemical signature within the broader range of Late Bronze Age glass compositions from Egypt, further underlining the former existence of primary glass production there and offering the possibility of identifying Lisht‐made glass elsewhere in Egypt and beyond.     

Fashion Curating: Critical Practice in the Museum and Beyond

Abstract

The commercial value of a quantity of yarn depends on two things, the length and the fineness. This article describes how practical methods of measuring these quantities led to systems of units that were noteworthy mainly for their profusion and complexity. The story covers the period from 1600 to the present day, and examples from the woollen, linen, and cotton trades are given. Progress towards standardization, both nationally and internationally, was slow. Even when opportunities for simplification arose, the trades were reluctant to abandon their customary measures in favour of ones that would have been simpler to use and understand.     

Islamic glass in the Christian Kingdom of Alwa: Chemistry of shards from Soba,Nubia, Sudan

Excavations at Soba, the capital of Alwa, between 2019 and 2022 yielded more than 30 glass fragments in addition to a glass cosmetic bottle. An analysis of 30 glass samples has identified glass belonging to a number of compositional groups. The majority of fragments were made of plant ash-soda glass produced in the Middle East (Iran, Iraq) between the 9th and 10th centuries, and in the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant and Egypt) between the mid-10th and mid-12th centuries. Seven fragments were made of mineral–soda-lime glass produced in 9th-century Egypt and three high-lead glasses find analogies in the 9th- to 11th-century glass. Archeological evidence, as well as textual sources, leave no doubt about Alwa’s intense transcultural connections. This article provides the first insight into the chemistry of glass shards from medieval Nubia, and the results of analysis contribute to evidence for long-distance contacts of Soba, the capital of one of the medieval kingdoms of Sahelian Africa.     

The production technology of Egyptian blue and green frits from second millennium BC Egypt and Mesopotamia

The microstructures and chemical compositions of some 55 Egyptian blue and green frit samples from New Kingdom Egypt and 15th century BC Mesopotamia are determined using analytical scanning electron microscopy, the main focus being on frit cakes, powder residues, and frit vessel and bead fragments from one of the “factory areas” at Amarna in Middle Egypt. Replicate Egyptian blue frits produced in the laboratory are similarly investigated. Comparison of the microstructures of the ancient and replicate samples suggest that frit cakes are the primary product, and that these were ground to produce the powder, and then moulded to shape and refired to produce the vessels and beads. Egyptian blue and green frits are shown to be distinct pigments, the pigment produced depending on the relative proportions of copper oxide and lime in the mixtures. The bulk and glass phase compositions are used to try to infer the different sources of the quartz, lime, copper and alkali flux used in the production of frits from Egypt and Mesopotamia. An estimate is made of the scale of production of Egyptian blue frit in New Kingdom Egypt.     

A Study of Biodeterioration and Chromatic Alterations of Painted and Gilded Mummy Cartonnage at the Saqqara Museum Storeroom,Egypt

Microbial biofilms have developed on the surfaces and within the painted and gilded layers of mummy cartonnage at the Saqqara museum storeroom in Giza, Egypt. SEM–EDX, XRD and FT–IR–ATR techniques were applied to analyse the coloured and gilded materials, ground layer, textile support and binder used for the cartonnage. Aspergillus niger (24.8%), Penicillium chrysogenum (21.5%) and a novel cartonnage‐biodegrading bacterium, Bacillus sonorensis (23.7%), were the most abundant microbes growing over the cartonnage surface. In addition, Aspergillus tamari (15.4%), A. fumigates (8.1%) and Fusarium solani (6.5%) were identified. The pigments comprised Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite), cinnabar (red), orpiment (yellow) and green pigment made from a mixture of cuprorivaite and orpiment. Gold leaf was used for the gilded layer, calcium carbonate and gypsum comprised the ground layer, gum arabic was the binding medium and the fibre base was a fine linen textile. Microbial colonization tests were performed on aged cartonnage replica samples made from linen and pigments of similar composition to ancient pigments found in the cartonnage. Each sample was inoculated separately with A. niger, P. chrysogenum and B. sonorensis. Yellow orpiment samples were the exception, as no colour change was detected after colonization by the examined micro‐organisms.     

Sails in the North—New Perspectives on an Old Problem

The origin of sail has been debated for a long time, but the linguistic evidence has rarely been taken into account. The word sail has a cognate in two Celtic languages, and a good linguistic chronology is available for these. The reconstructed historical development of Celtic and Germanic words indicates that the word existed in West Germanic well before the Anglo-Saxon migrations and the confinement of Celtic to the British Isles. An origin of both word and technology in the Celtic world is proposed, both being passed into the Germanic world in the Rhine region.     

Insect Remains from the Collections in the Egyptian Museum of Turin

The identification of insects preserved in pharaonic antiquities stored in the Egyptian Museum of Turin provides new information on aspects of biogeography, storage and trade. The khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium, the biscuit beetle, Stegobium paniceum, and the house fly, Musca domestica, were recovered from food offerings from tombs in Egypt, and Dermestes frischii was found embedded in resin from a cartonnage mask. The study produced some of the earliest records of pests of stored products, and the khapra beetle may indicate early contacts with the Indian subcontinent. The problems of differentiating modern and ancient infestation are discussed.     

The Problems of Horace Ars Poetica 119–120

A famous passage in the 1st-century Greek merchant's handbook, Periplus Maris Erythraei, reports a Roman attack on the city of Eudaimôn Arabia – Aden in present-day Yemen. No such campaign is known from other sources, and the passage has been ascribed to a scribal error, to an otherwise unknown Roman campaign and to a mix-up with the well-known Arabian campaign of Aelius Gallus. The author argues that none of the above is correct, and that the report of the Periplus is in fact the result of a misinterpreted passage in Augustus’ political will – the Res Gestae.