Emerging Applications of LiDAR / Airborne Laser Scanning in the Management of World Heritage Sites

Remotely sensed data and imagery have revolutionized the way we understand archaeological sites and landscapes. LiDAR / airborne laser scanning (ALS) has been used to capture the often subtle topographic remnants of previously undiscovered sites even in intensely studied landscapes, and is rapidly becoming a key technology in survey projects with large extents and/or difficult terrain. This paper examines the practical application of this technology to archaeological heritage management, with special attention given to how ALS can support the World Heritage List nomination process and management of WHS archaeological sites and landscapes. It presents a number of examples from published ALS studies alongside case studies from projects undertaken by the authors at Cultural Site Research and Management and the Cultural Site Research and Management Foundation, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. The paper opens with a review of how ALS has been used at established World Heritage Sites, focusing on the Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend in the Boyne, Ireland, and the Angkor Archaeological Site in Cambodia. ALS applications for site prospection and demarcation, and viewshed analysis is explored in this section. Following this, we explore how ALS has been used to support two recent applications: the successfully nominated Monumental Earthworks at Poverty Point, USA and the recently nominated Orheiul Vechi Archaeological Landscape in Moldova. We propose that the detail offered by ALS data greatly strengthens nomination dossiers by emphasizing the outstanding universal value of sites, highlighting significant features and providing greater context to wider landscapes, and is particularly efficacious in delineating site boundaries for legal protection and long-term management. Finally, we conclude with a look at some of the practical considerations involved in the use of ALS, including access and training.     

Detecting Cultural Remains in Boreal Forests in Sweden Using Airborne Laser Scanning Data of Different Resolutions

ABSTRACT

Airborne laser scanning (ALS) is increasingly being used to detect cultural remains in forest landscapes. Boreal forests are challenging, however, since most ancient land use was carried out without major permanent ground disturbances. If this challenge can be met, there is a large potential for surveys through existing nation-wide laser-scanning programs, although their resolutions tend to be low. In this study, we compare the performance of low-resolution (LR) and high-resolution (HR) ALS data in the Krycklan catchment in northern Sweden, an area where ancient land use was small-scale and diverse. About three times as many cultural remains were detected in the HR data set, but the LR set was satisfactory for distinct structures. We analyze how LR data sets can be enhanced at ground-point classification and terrain-model generation and conclude that ALS data have a large potential for the detection and protection of cultural remains in the boreal forest.     

Parameterization and Visualization of the Errors in Areal Interpolation

Areal interpolation involves the transfer of data from one zonation of a region to another, where the two zonations of space are geographically incompatible. By its very nature this process is fraught with errors. However, only recently have there been specific attempts to quantify these errors. Fisher and Langford (1995) employed Monte Carlo simulation methods, based on modifiable areal units, to compare the errors resulting from selected areal interpolation techniques. This paper builds on their work by parameterizing and visualizing the errors resulting from the areal weighting and dasymetric methods of areal interpolation. It provides the basis for further research by developing the methodology to produce predictive models of the errors in areal interpolation. Random aggregation techniques are employed to generate multiple sets of source zones and interpolation takes place from these units onto a fixed set of randomly generated target zones. Analysis takes place at the polygon, or target zone level, which enables detailed analysis of the error distributions, basic visualization of the spatial nature of the errors and predictive modeling of the errors based on parameters of the target zones. Correlation and regression analysis revealed that errors from the areal weighting technique were related to the geometric parameters of the target zones. The dasymetric errors, however, demonstrated more association with the population or attribute characteristics of the zones. The perimeter, total population, and population density of the target zones were shown to be the strongest predictive parameters.     

Models of Space Searching in Urban Areas

City dwellers occasionally must seek jobs, dwellings, or particular services or goods. Two very different ways exist by which the individual may conduct such a search. Lacking prior information, the person may elect to visit perceived possible locations until an appropriate one is found. Alternatively, an address may first be ascertained and then visited by finding a path to it. Clearly, there is a substantial difference between these two methods in terms of the amount of spatial movement they require in order to satisfy the searcher's needs. In this paper, this difference is modeled for situations that vary in terms of the density of acceptable end points of the search, as well as in characteristics of the signs of these end points, their patterns, and the level of information with which the searcher may begin.     

城市系统演化模型与模拟分析

本文详细地介绍了P. M. Allen的城市系统演化模型(EMUS),对EMUS模拟的部分结果与城市地理的一些联系也作了详细分析,如城市发展过程模拟, EMUS与Zipf法则, EMUS与中地论, EMUS中的决策效应模拟等。     

Markovian Models of Movement Within Urban Spatial Structures

Much work has assumed that movement within urban spatial structures is an “adaptive” process. Nonetheless, mathematical models have not yet been specified and tested which formulate both how different individuals “adapt” over time in destination or route selection, and how predictions about aggregate movement can be derived from postulates about different persons. Two adaptive first-order Markov models for heterogeneous individuals are suggested by the literature. When formulated and tested, however, these models are inadequate to describe travel within urban spatial structures. This implies that the use of Markovian processes to model movement may be overrated. More confidence may be placed in other formulations such as linear learning models of route and destination choice.     

Policy Type, Bureaucracy, and Urban Policies: Integrating Models of Urban Service Distribution

This study advances a comprehensive model of urban service distribution based upon types of urban services, to which little concern has been paid in the study of service distribution. By introducing an integrating typology of urban services, it shows how the pattern of service distribution varies depending on service type. By doing so, this study demonstrates that polarized discussions about the primacy of different explanatory models are inadequate and artificial, and that seemingly contradictory models are not necessarily mutually exclusive when the effect of service type on the distribution of services is taken into consideration.     

From Hand Survey to 3D Laser Scanning: A Discussion for Non-Technical Users of Heritage Documentation

Abstract

Digital technology has changed our approaches to cultural heritage documentation radically and promises to continue to bring rapid changes. Photographic and non-photographic (graphic) documentation tools are merging in one process, in which digital photographic technology is the main base. Due to digital technology, there is an increasing gap between specialist technicians and non-technical users involved in heritage documentation. 3D approaches are still not popular among users in cultural heritage. However, in order to build a bridge between the specialist and non-technical users, a dialogue between them needs to be developed, not only to discuss issues of data precision and 3D accuracy, but also visualization production systems, which can now easily be achieved by modern digital photographic technology.

This paper presents a comparative evaluation and synthesis of cultural heritage documentation methods and survey techniques currently available, focusing on the needs and requirements of non-technical users of heritage documentation. It attempts to clarify some new aspects in cultural heritage documentation and to assess the impact of current technology. The paper undertakes a comparative evaluation of the potential application of digital methods in documentation — and examines issues such as quality, accuracy, time, costs and specific skills required — from pre-electronic techniques (hand measurement) to 3D laser scanning, which today represents the most advanced technology available for measuring and documenting objects, structures and landscapes.     

点校本《明史》校读札记

中华书局点校本《明史》有不少史实记载错误或字句失校之处,本文从三个方面对部分进士传记进行考证:一是进士所赐赠官和谥号的漏误;二是进士登科时间的错误;三是进士任职的职官漏误。     

Deformation of Ancient Buildings inferred by Terrestrial Laser Scanning methodology: the Cantalovo church case study (Northern Italy)*

The study of the health of a building connects humanistic and scientific research, and a complete characterization can be achieved by integrating all the available historical documentation, architectural and metrological studies, as well as laboratory and in situ analyses of the materials. A contactless, non‐invasive surveying technique such as terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) allows the acquisition of dense and accurate geometric and radiometric (electromagnetic measurements such as signal intensity) information about the observed surface of the building, which can be easily integrated with data provided by high‐resolution digital imaging. The early Christian Cantalovo church was surveyed for the first time in April 2011, by means of the ILRIS‐3D ER very long range scanner. The second and last survey was performed in June 2012, after the main shocks of the Emilia earthquake seismic sequence. A very long range instrument is suitable for fast, simple and independent measurements, due to its technical characteristics and, for this reason, is easily usable for accurate surveying in emergency conditions. The main results are obtained by applying a data analysis strategy based on the creation of TLS‐based morphological maps computed as point‐to‐primitive differences, which allow the creation of a deformation map and its evolution in time.     

多时相三维激光扫描技术在考古发掘过程中的应用——以江苏孔塘遗址为例

三维激光扫描技术凭借快速、准确、无需接触文物表面等优势,已被越来越多地应用于文物保护和考古发掘工作中。江苏句容孔塘遗址在发掘过程中运用三维激光扫描技术不断跟进扫描,全面真实记录发掘过程中的各类遗迹的空间数据。在顾及遗存特征的前提下,对多时相墓葬点云数据进行了空间匹配、分割和缺失数据拟合等后期处理,重建遗址三维场景,直观展示多期遗存的时空关系,为后期考古研究推理提供了数据支持。     

《宋史》讹误考校五则

将中华书局本《宋史》．与其他宋代史料对校,就会发现其中有三类讹误：一是地名讹,二是人名讹,三是文字讹。在此基础上,本文进行了考校,共订正其中讹误五则。     

Errors in velocities determined from EISCAT data

It has been reported that unusually large errors are observed in velocities derived from EISCAT data in which the power in the returned signal falls to less than 2% of that in the background noise. This suggestion has been investigated using a specialised interactive analysis package, and possible causes, both in the data and in the analysis, were considered. Subsequently, an adaptation of the usual procedure for velocity determination was considered. This involved applying the normal method to the raw data without first subtracting the background noise. The advantages of this technique are discussed, in particular for data in which the returned signal is relatively weak.     

Integrating Transportation Network and Regional Economic Models to Estimate the Costs of a Large Urban Earthquake

In this paper we summarize an integrated, operational model of losses due to earthquake impacts on transportation and industrial capacity, and how these losses affect the metropolitan economy. The procedure advances the information provided by transportation and activity system analysis techniques in ways that help capture the most important ecomonic implications of earthquakes. Network costs and origin-destination requirements are modeled endogenously and consistently. Indirect and induced losses associated with direct impacts on transportation and industrial capacity are distributed across zones and ecomonic sectors. Preliminary results are summarized for a magnitude 7.1 earthquake on the Elysian Park blind thrust fault in Los Angeles.     

《太平经合校》标点拾误(一)

《太平经》是东汉中后期的一部口语体著作,对这一时期的语言研究具有不可替代的资料价值。原书现已残缺,由王明先生整理而成的《太平经合校》是目前研究该书思想、语言唯一可以利用的本子．但《合校》志在辑补。标点小道．或不在意,本文列举其中标点错误三百余条．以就正于方家,或于是书整理有所补益。     

Urban,Suburban, and Exurban Sprawl in the Rocky Mountain West: Evidence from Regional Adjustment Models*

Abstract. This article adapts a regional adjustment model to examine land use change in the Rocky Mountain West region of the United States. Three interrelated questions motivate the research. How does the proliferation of urban, suburban, and exurban sprawl in the Rocky Mountain West relate to the population and employment growth process? Are population and employment endogenously determined there? And what does this imply for the sustainability of economic development in the region? Through a series of regional adjustment models, the empirical analysis links population and employment growth in the Rocky Mountain West to explicit spatial outcomes and delivers substantive evidence of endogeneity between the two. The results suggest that the long‐term prosperity of the region depends on the preservation of the high quality of life it offers, and that greater intergovernmental coordination, careful infrastructure planning, and attention to the character of its economic structure may help to accomplish this. Future research should focus on looking deeper into certain explanatory variables used in this analysis and on developing a better picture of what the spatial equilibrium that regional adjustment models emulate may look like.