Constructing the subject: geographical models in English schools, 1870–1944

Between 1870 and 1944, three-dimensional models of the world's physical and human features were widely and regularly used by teachers of school geography in England. Whilst visually striking, models also provided tangible illustrations of geographical phenomena which were said to transform abstract notions into concrete realities. Suggestions that geographical models were of greatest educational value when built by pupils themselves were endorsed by increasingly influential theoretical arguments in favour of “natural” and “child-centred” education. The co-ordination of hand and eye activity which modelling required was considered an especially potent means of stimu-lating rational deductive thought and powers of imagination, vital prerequisites of “thinking geographically”. The first half of this paper discusses models as media for demonstrating geographical principles to children. Model-making by the pupils themselves is addressed in its second section. The theoretical assumptions underlying models' widespread adoption for each purpose are explored and examples of their use discussed. Particular attention is paid to their perceived effects in helping to build English children's understanding of their individual and collective place as local, national, Imperial or global citizens of the world.     

Black Belonging,White Belonging: Primitive Accumulation in South Africa's Private Nature Reserves

Evictions have been shown to be a mechanism of primitive accumulation in nature conservation. This paper adds an historical analysis to the discussion on primitive accumulation in conservation by exploring the seemingly innocuous mechanism of White belonging to land in South Africa's private nature reserves. Contemporary articulations of White belonging are replete with stories and images of White male “pioneers” from the colonial era who, upon arrival in “empty lands”, were able to create economies out of nothing. Such representations of history on private nature reserve websites and other promotional material invisibilise Black belonging and legitimise private conservation. By illuminating the inconsistencies in the empty lands narrative and the legacies of three championed conservation pioneers from the 19^th century, this paper argues that White belonging is a mechanism of primitive accumulation, while Black belonging continues to be expressed in various ways in contemporary South Africa.