White and Coloured Marbles of the Roman Town of Urbs Salvia (Urbisaglia,Macerata, Marche,Italy)

The results of an archaeometric study concerning the coloured stones and 14 white marble sculptures found in the ancient city of Urbs Salvia (Urbisaglia, Macerata) – one of the main Roman archaeological sites of the Marche region (east central Italy) – are presented here. Data show the presence of the most important decorative stones used by the Romans, originating in all of the Mediterranean provinces, from Egypt and North Africa to Asia Minor, Greece, Gallia, Iberia and Italy. Thirty‐one different coloured lithotypes have been identified, including red and green porphyries as well as marmor phrygium and numidicum, namely the four most expensive stones cited in Diocletian's edict. Crustae of marmor chium, taenarium, chalcidicum, scyreticum, lucullaeum and sagarium also feature. Another significant presence is that of coloured stones that are generally rare, even in Rome and Ostia, such as cipollino mandolato (which is very abundant at Urbs Salvia, more than anywhere outside Gallia), broccatello di Spagna, alabastro a pecorella, lapis ophytes, brecciated facies of marmor iassene and cottanello antico. Worthy of mention, too, is the abundant presence of so‐called Roman breccia from Lez (Upper Garonne valley, French Pyrenees), a stone never reported outside Gallia. The 14 marble sculptures analysed come from public and private buildings of the Roman city and are now exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Urbisaglia. Our petrographic and isotopic analyses show that they are made of Lunense (five), Pentelic (three), Parian lychnites (three), Thasian (three) and Proconnesian (one Corinthian capital) marbles. The quality of the coloured stones identified, together with the presence of sculptures made of precious imported white marble varieties, reveals an opulent town and a local patronage wishing to decorate public buildings and rich houses with the most sought‐after marbles of Rome.     

PROVENANCE STUDY OF MARBLE ARTEFACTS FROM THE ROMAN BURIAL AREA OF FASCHENDORF (CARINTHIA,AUSTRIA)*

Numerous marble artefacts were among the extraordinary findings excavated at the Roman burial area of Faschendorf (Carinthia, Austria). The provenance of marble objects, particularly in the Roman provinces, is mostly unclear. Predominantly Mediterranean marbles have been used, but there are also some marble occurrences in the eastern Alpine regions that were exploited in those times. Besides a mineralogical–petrographic analysis, grain‐size evaluation in particular, and the determination of carbon and oxygen isotopes allow an effective characterization of the Faschendorf materials. Their provenance from the Gummern Marble complex in Carinthia is very likely.     

ON THE WHITE AND COLOURED MARBLES OF THE ROMAN TOWN OF CUICUL (DJEMILA,ALGERIA)

This paper reports the results of an archaeometric study of the local and imported marbles found in the Roman town of Cuicul (now Djemila, Algeria), a research project funded by the Sixth Framework Programme of the European Union. Of the few imported coloured lithotypes that have been found, four are of Greek origin and one was imported from Asia Minor. In addition, two other classical Roman coloured stones found on the site are probably of local North African origin (most likely one from Numidia and one from Algeria). With regard to the grey and white marbles employed in the statuary and architecture, petrographic study in thin section and the δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O isotopic data emphasize the frequent use of the local fine‐grained lithotype from Filfila (Skikda) together with imported Greek lithotypes (i.e., Pentelic marble, the dolomitic variety of Thasian marble, and Parian marble from Lakkoi) as well as different varieties of the so‐called ‘greco scritto’, whose provenance in some cases still remains uncertain. In fact, the petrographic and geochemical features of the marbles do not always match those known for the classical ‘greco scritto’ from the quarry of Cap de Garde, near Annaba (Algeria).     

The Architectural Reuse of Roman Marble and Stone Spolia in the Early Medieval Monte Sorbo Church (Sarsina,Central Italy)

We present the results of a multi‐method archaeometric study concerning the architectural elements reused in Monte Sorbo church (Sarsina, central Italy) between the eighth and ninth centuries AD . The provenance study has focused on classical marbles and stones, which clearly do not originate from the local Apennine geological formations and are thought to come from extra‐regional sources. A large fraction of the tested marbles is from Asia Minor, coming from both the Proconnesian district on Marmara Island and, probably, the Hasançavuslar site near Ephesus (Greco scritto). Of the four remaining marbles investigated, one is from the Carrara district and three are from different Greek quarrying areas, such as Mount Pentelikon (Athens) and the Thasos and Paros islands. The data also highlight the reuse of decorated gravestones made of Pietra di Aurisina as architectonic elements. This limestone is a fossiliferous carbonate stone outcropping in the Trieste Karst region (north‐eastern Italy), which was exploited by both the Romans and the Byzantines. The assignment of all of the columns of the central nave to the same source area provides an argument in favour of their provenance from a single monument, which was probably located in Sarsina or Ravenna, with the ‘colourful taste’ that is typical of the late Antonine and Severian periods.     

WHITE,VEINED MARBLE FROM ROMAN AMMAIA (PORTUGAL): PROVENANCE AND USE

A multimethod approach using petrography and strontium (Sr) isotopic analysis was applied to determine the geological source of 17 marble artefacts from the Roman town of Ammaia (Portugal). All samples are calcitic, with dolomite, quartz and muscovite as accessory minerals. The marbles are characteristically medium‐grained with a maximum grain size (MGS) between 0.98 mm and 1.82 mm, have a heteroblastic texture, and have curved to embayed calcite grain boundaries. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values of marble leachates range from 0.708488 to 0.708639. Comparison with Hispanic and Mediterranean marbles suggests the Estremoz Anticline as the most likely source for the Ammaia marble, especially for architectural marble. This hypothesis is supported by the geographical proximity of the Estremoz marble district and the long and expensive overland transport required for other marbles to reach Ammaia.     

Common ware production at Thamusida: dating and characterisation of Roman and Islamic pottery

Twenty-one samples of likely Roman, likely Islamic and unknown common ware from the archaeological site of Thamusida (Rabat, Morocco) were analysed in order to anchor selected types of pottery to a limited time span and, possibly, to a production area and technology. Analytical techniques were thermoluminescence, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray fluorescence. The results arising from this research are definitely useful for the study of the site of Thamusida as well as for all researchers involved in archaeological and archaeometrical research in Morocco. Chronologies proposed on a typological base have been denied twice: a likely Islamic cup dates back to the second century a.d.; vice versa, a stewpot, framed into the Roman period, resulted to be an eighth century a.d. production. Moreover, the identification of an eighteenth century ceramic production is of outstanding importance, as it characterises a completely unknown production. Regarding the production area, four samples of both Roman and Islamic periods have been recognised as local productions of Thamusida.     

NMR as a new tool for cultural heritage application: The provenance of ancient white marbles

Identifying the origin of marble used in antiquity brings back to light details of the economic, social and political organization of classical societies, and characterizing in depth the chemistry of marble is key to discovering its provenance. Beyond X‐ray diffraction, which could reveal the presence of discriminant secondary crystalline phases and the quantification of accessory minerals combined with a multivariate analysis approach, solid‐state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) enables one to recognize the local structure arrangement of both crystalline and amorphous materials by looking at one or more selected atoms. In present paper targets the ¹³C nuclide, and thus the major component of marble, calcium carbonate. Whatever their geological origin, marbles ¹³C‐NMR spectra present only one resonance corresponding to the carboxyl function whose intensity and line width vary from one marble to another. If the variation of the NMR signal intensity observed is the result of great T1 variations (from 220 to 5300 s) and is linked to iron content, the line width reflects defects in the calcite crystal in which calcium has been replaced by another element such as magnesium, aluminium or strontium. The specific profile of the NMR signal has been used successfully to help determine the origin of some archaeological items.     

MINERO‐PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ‘GRECO SCRITTO’ MARBLE FROM CAP DE GARDE,NEAR HIPPO REGIUS (ANNABA,ALGERIA)*

This work presents the results of the first mineralogical, petrographical and geochemical characterization of the marble quarried from the Cap de Garde headland, not far from Annaba (Algeria). This site is traditionally held by archaeologists to be the main source of supply of the so‐called ‘greco scritto’ marble, which was much used by the Romans for architectural and decorative–ornamental purposes, locally from the first century bc , and in Rome and central and southern Italy from the late Flavian period until the fourth century ad . The databank relating to the quarried material, created here for the first time, is used to establish the origin of ‘greco scritto’ found in six important Roman cities of North Africa: Hippo Regius and Cuicul (Djemila), in Algeria; Volubilis, in Morocco; Cyrene, in Libya; and Carthage and Utica in Tunisia. The results of this archaeometric study support the hypothesis (already put forward by authors) that the ‘greco scritto’used in the Roman Mediterranean originated from different sites, and suggest the existence of a number of North African quarries, also in the vicinity of Annaba.     

The Asiatic marbles of the Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli

Multi-method provenance studies, including petrographic, isotopic, electron paramagnetic resonance and trace chemical analyses, have been carried out on 20 white, 9 black and 1 red artifacts purposely selected to investigate the use and distribution of sculptural marbles at the Hadrian's Villa. A large fraction of the marbles tested (21 samples, 70%) are shown to be from Asia Minor, mostly originating from the recently discovered site of Göktepe near Aphrodisias (15 or 71%). All the 9 black samples investigated and 6 out of 11 white Asiatic marbles are from Göktepe, the remaining being Docimium marble from Iscehisar (4 samples) and Aphrodisias marble from the city quarries (1 sample). The single red sculpture tested proved to be Carian red marble from the Iasos quarries, whereas non-Asiatic marbles include 3 Carrara and 6 Pentelicon samples. The selection of marbles tested is preliminary and incomplete, but, despite this, the results are noteworthy, especially since the marble of other sculptures from the Villa has already been identified as Göktepe. Together with other published results, the marble distribution at the Hadrian's Villa seems to suggest that the use of sculptural marbles in the Roman world underwent considerable changes around the turn of the 1st and the 2nd century AD. The evidence supporting this hypothesis is briefly summarized in the conclusions.     

Fragments of Boats from the Canale Anfora of Aquileia,Italy, and Comparison of Sewn‐Plank Ships in the Roman Era

Fragments of Roman sewn‐plank boats have been found, during rescue excavations, in the Canale Anfora, an artificial channel used by Roman ships to enter the Roman city of Aquileia. Remains were found in both 1988 and 2005 at the same site. Elements of what were probably two boats are analysed and compared to other finds of Roman sewn boats found along the coast of the Veneto and Friuli Venezia Giulia regions. They are evidence of the use of this technique, instead of the more widespread mortise‐and‐tenon system, in the quite limited area of the Northern Adriatic. These boats were used both for inland and for maritime navigation.     

AN EPR AND ISOTOPIC STUDY OF THE MARBLES OF THE TRAJAN's ARCH AT ANCONA: AN EXAMPLE OF ALLEGED HYMETTIAN PROVENANCE*

The provenance of 20 marble samples drawn from the Trajan's arch at Ancona, which is supposed to be made of Greek, Hymettian marble, has been established on the basis of the independent use of EPR and isotopic data. The results of the two methods are in good agreement and unequivocally indicate a Proconnesian provenance. Sixteen samples are assigned to this site, whereas two are classified as untypical Proconnesian samples and the remaining two are assigned an unlikely Parian provenance. No indication exists for a possible Hymettian origin of the marbles. A multi‐method approach, which employs all of the experimental variables simultaneously, demonstrates that the 18 samples identified as Proconnesian belong to several different quarrying areas within the site. This result is taken as an indication that the Proconnesian quarries were run following a highly organized, semi‐industrial production model. The origin of the Hymettian/Proconnesian misunderstanding and the possible misclassification of other Roman monuments in Italy are briefly commented on.     

ACCESSORY MINERALS AS TRACERS IN THE PROVENANCING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MARBLES,USED IN COMBINATION WITH ISOTOPIC AND PETROGRAPHIC DATA*

Thirty‐eight archaeological marbles (Roman and medieval) from Modena and Reggio Emilia (northern Italy) were provenanced using the accessory minerals as tracers and the results were compared with those inferred for the same artefacts using isotope composition and MGS (maximum grain size of calcite grains). The number of inferred possible sources is generally lower when using the mineralogical method, which therefore seems to be suited to marble provenancing.     

SCIENTIFIC CHARACTERIZATION OF THE POHORJE MARBLES,SLOVENIA

As a former part of the great Roman Empire, Slovenia has many archaeological sites featuring buildings and objects entirely or partly constructed from marble whose provenance is doubtful. In Slovenia, the most probable source of such marble is the Pohorje Mountains. For the purpose of supporting further provenance studies, these marbles are fully scientifically characterized. The techniques used are petrographic and geochemical analysis, stable isotope ratio analysis and EPR spectroscopy. The results show that the Pohorje marbles are highly heterogeneous in both their isotopic and geochemical parameters as well as grain sizes. The parameters of the different Pohorje marble outcrops are compared between themselves and with the parameters of known ancient quarries in the Mediterranean and Austria. The use of a multi‐technique approach with combined parameters allows the best possible discrimination.     

PETROGRAPHIC AND ISOTOPIC CHARACTERIZATION OF THE MARBLE OF THE ISLAND OF TINOS (GREECE)*

Most outcrops of good‐quality crystalline marble in Mediterranean countries were exploited in Greek and Roman times. Hence, a wide variety of marble is now found in archaeological excavations. The precise determination of the provenance of a marble object is of great archaeological importance, and is now mostly obtained by coupling the petrographic study of a thin section with the analysis of the C and O stable isotopes, or by stereomicroscopy and EPR. The existing databases are considerable but still insufficient, because our knowledge about and study of ancient Mediterranean quarries remain incomplete. The contribution of this research is to add new petrographic and isotopic data on small quarries on the Greek island of Tinos that were exploited in antiquity. This marble belongs to the same geological horizon; it is quite pure, sometimes dolomitic and characterized by a low‐T, high‐P metamorphism that produced a limited recrystallization (MGS varying from 0.64 to 2.50 mm) on marine limestone protoliths. The petrographic features are quite distinctive: the fabric is strongly lineated and often stressed; and the accessory minerals are ubiquitary quartz, ore minerals, graphite and muscovite. As far as the isotopic data are concerned, δ¹³C_PDB varies from 1.1 to 2.7, and δ¹⁸O_PDB from ?1.7 to ?11.4. Both the features and the data have been compared with those of similar marbles used in antiquity, showing that their combination mirrors the fingerprint of the Tinos marble.     

A Late Roman Quay in the River Meuse near Cuijk,Netherlands

The detection of the waterlogged remains of massive oak foundation piles in the river Meuse near the Dutch city of Cuijk led to the discovery of a unique Late Roman site. The piles, driven into the river‐bed, had protected vast layers of organic material containing all kind of artefacts against erosion by the river. Increased erosion during recent decades has uncovered much of the structure and artefacts, which have been meticulously recorded and collected by divers of the Dutch foundation Mergor in Mosam. Analysis of all data retrieved over the past 20 years has provided much information about the environment and life in Ceuclum, the Roman city of Cuijk.     

A Multi‐Method Database of the Black and White Marbles of Göktepe (Aphrodisias), Including Isotopic,EPR, Trace and Petrographic Data

A database of the ancient marbles of Göktepe near Aphrodisias is reported, and includes 160 white, black and bichrome samples from 13 quarries and two waste deposits. The quarries are grouped into four districts. Districts 1 and 2, to the north, produced exclusively black or dark grey marbles (nero antico). Districts 3 and 4 produced white statuary marble. Nero antico and a black and white stone were also quarried in district 4, where the black marble surfaces again. The samples were characterized using petrography, isotopic analysis, EPR spectroscopy and trace analysis. The Göktepe white exhibits an unparalleled combination of fine grain, low EPR intensity and high strontium concentration that often allows easy identification. The isotopic values are less distinctive and similar to those for Carrara. In most cases, however, they are tightly grouped and also quite indicative. The black marbles exhibit a much weaker metamorphic overprint. With respect to the white marbles, they show analytical similarities but also notable differences. Therefore, establishing their provenance can be more difficult and may require the support of petrographic analysis. The results suggest that the Göktepe marbles were among the most prized and widespread statuary marbles used in Roman times, particularly from the early second century ad onwards.     

Finding millet in the Roman world

Examining the evidence for millet in the Roman empire, during the period, circa 753 bc–610 ad, presents a number of challenges: a handful of scant mentions in the ancient surviving agrarian texts, only a few fortuitous preserved archaeological finds and limited archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence. Ancient agrarian texts note millet’s ecological preferences and multiple uses. Recent archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence has shown that millet was being used throughout the Roman period. The compiled data suggests that millet consumption was a more complex issue than the ancient sources alone would lead one to believe. Using the recent archaeobotanical study of Insula VI.I from the city of Pompeii, as a case study, the status and role of millet in the Roman world is examined and placed within its economic, cultural and social background across time and space in the Roman world.     

Provenance of marble sculptures and artifacts from the so-called Canopus and other buildings of “Villa Adriana” (Hadrian's villa – Tivoli,Italy)

The results of a minero-petrographic and isotopic study carried out on the marbles of statues and architectural elements belonging to several buildings on the “Hadrian's Villa” site (the so-called Canopus, the Peschiera, the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici and the Serapeum) are presented here as part of an ongoing archaeometric project which considers the determination of the provenance of all the marble decorations of the Villa complex. Analytical data indicate the prevailing presence of marmor lunense and the use of Pentelic and Thasian marbles for architectural elements in a few parts of the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici, the Peschiera and the Serapeum; no significant use is made of Proconnesian marble, probably the most inexpensive of the time. Analysis of sculptures from the Canopus showed that those of the Tiber and Nile gods were made of Parian marble, the Caryatids and Telamons of Pentelic marble and the Amazons of the precious white Dokymaean marble.     

Dimensional variations of Roman masonry subjected to wetting-drying cycles

Abstract

Many Roman monuments made of opus caementicium are subjected to wetting and drying phenomena caused by water or/and humidity from the ground. The action of water impregnation on the hypothetical dimensional changes in this Roman concrete has not been considered in the literature and no experimental data are available.

The purpose of this work was the evaluation of the effect of wetting and drying cycles in a number of cores taken from an ancient Roman monument (Domus Tiberiana in the Palatine, Rome). The concrete samples were made of a pozzolanic mortar with large pieces of tuff, marble and bricks.

In spite of some differences in their composition, the behaviour of the cores was similar and, generally, quite constant during the experimental cycles. On the average, the length variation was about 3–4%,or 3–4mm for each metre and, when related to high structural walls and monuments, the possible dimensional changes were quite impressive.