The potential of bird remains for environmental reconstruction

Until relatively recently, studies of bird remains have been regarded as peripheral to mainstream research on early archaeological and palaeontological sites, rather than a potentially crucial factor in the reconstruction of the past environments in which hominids and other larger mammals were present This paper sets out to define the range of ecological information for a site which can be gained through study of the bird bones, using as an example the bones recovered in the excavations at Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Preservation of bird bones: erosion versus digestion by owls

Surface damage to bird bones from pellets of three species of owls (S. aluco, A. otus and B. bubo) was compared with that of bird bones exposed to weathering and soil corrosion (Záskogo Cave in the Western Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria and Ciemna Cave, southern Poland). Scanning electron microscopy and light microscope examinations indicate that the effects of weathering of bird bones (extensive pitting and flaking away on whole bones, holes with sharp edges, depressions with rough bottoms and sharp edges of breakage) are distinguishable from those of digestion (rounding of hole edges on articular ends and sometimes on shafts, rounding of breakage). However, soil corrosion may produce similar rounding to that of digestion, which may hamper taphonomic interpretations of fossil assemblages. Two stages of weathering in bird bone are distinguished. Generally, the kind of damage done to bird bones is similar to that done to mammalian remains. Taphonomic studies of fossil bird remains should take into account a combination of features, including surface damage, fragmentation and possible chemical alterations of bone tissues. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The selection of bird bones for artefact production at Dutch neolithic sites

The bird bones used for artefacts at the Dutch neolithic site of Aartswoud were from birds that were not represented among the food remains. Studies at other contemporary sites show that this was also the case at some other sites. The bones seem to have been selected from birds of particularly large size. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The bioerosion of bird bones

This study presents a synthesis of the evidence for modern archaeological, and palaeontological bioerosion of vertebrate tissue. It describes the first evidence for the bioerosion of modern, archaeological and fossil bird bones. A new form of bone bioerosion, known as Hackett tunnels, is defined. The bioerosion of vertebrate tissue by cyanobacteria and algae in modern marine and lacustrine environments is also described. Archaeological evidence indicates that the destruction of bone by bioerosion occurs in other terrestrial environments, such as cave deposits and middens. Bone from marine and lacustrine environments that appears to be macroscopically well preserved can have large amounts of microscopic fabric destruction. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fragmentation and preservation of bird bones in uneaten food remains of the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus

This paper presents fragmentation patterns of bird bones in uneaten food remains of the gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus. The victims' bones show a relatively low degree of fragmentation. Elements of the pectoral girdle and wing predominate while head and leg elements are poorly represented.     

The identification of charred archaeological remains of vegetative parenchymous tissue

The biased way in which some inferences may be drawn from archaeobotanical assemblages, due to problems in identification, is briefly discussed. A potentially important class of plant remains, vegetative parenchymous organs, commonly sources of food, are indicated as being such a class rarely identified from archaeological contexts. Their identification based on characters of the plants' anatomy and morphology together with an understanding of the way in which tissues degrade on preservation by charring is suggested. Characters of the charred tissues that make up vegetative parenchymous organs are described in detail. The processes of sorting and identification are then briefly discussed.     

Subsistence and symbol: the interpretation of bird remains in archaeology

This issue of the journal is devoted to papers on the role of birds in archaeology. Most of the contributions are based on papers given at the second meeting of the Bird Working Group of the International Council for Archaezoology (ICAZ) held at the University of Southampton (UK) in September 1995. The meeting brought together archaeologists, zoologists and ornithologists, and the subjects discussed cover most of the relationships between humans and birds that can be established form the study of birds from archaeological sites.     

Species identification of archaeological dung remains: A critical review of potential methods

Abstract

Dung, macroscopically recognisable as such or not, can more commonly be found in archaeological contexts than is perhaps realised. Up to now, identification of dung to the species which produced it is usually either tenuous, or is not possible. However, species identification can be very informative and is necessary before any further studies can be conducted on the dung, for example on health and hygiene in the past and palaeoecology. This study presents a review of potential methods by which species identifications of archaeological dung can be undertaken. Criteria for identification can be divided into three broad categories: morphometric features of the dung; the content of dung and contextual evidence. Overall, the chances of a precise identification are high; however, a combination of different criteria and techniques will often be necessary to establish a secure identification. Moreover, preservation issues may exclude the application of some criteria while several criteria require more research and the expansion of reference collections of recent material. The overall aim is to move towards standardised methods for species identification of archaeological dung.     

Accurate sex identification of ancient human remains using DNA shotgun sequencing

Accurate identification of the biological sex of ancient remains is vital for critically testing hypotheses about social structure in prehistoric societies. However, morphological methods are imprecise for juvenile individuals and fragmentary remains, and molecular methods that rely on particular sex-specific marker loci such as the amelogenin gene suffer from allelic dropout and sensitivity to modern contamination. Analyzing shotgun sequencing data from 14 present-day humans of known biological sex and 16 ancient individuals from a time span of 100 to ∼70,000 years ago, we show that even relatively sparse shotgun sequencing (about 100,000 human sequences) can be used to reliably identify chromosomal sex simply by considering the ratio of sequences aligning to the X and Y chromosomes, and highlight two examples where the genetic assignments indicate morphological misassignment. Furthermore, we show that accurate sex identification of highly degraded remains can be performed in the presence of substantial amounts of present-day contamination by utilizing the signature of cytosine deamination, a characteristic feature of ancient DNA.     

A new calibration of the XRD technique for the study of archaeological burned human remains

A new calibration of human bones as a function of programmed temperature (200–1000 °C) and time (0, 18 and 60 min) is presented and discussed in order to investigate the issues related to the study of cremated bone remains by using the powder X-ray diffraction approach. The experimental results confirm the growth of hydroxylapatite crystallites as a function of the applied temperature, with a sigmoid behaviour that has been parameterized to the experimental data points. Particularly, it was observed that the thermal treatments for 60 min anticipate of about 100 °C the effects that are otherwise observed after the treatments for 0 min. The developed procedure was subsequently applied to cremated remains of various archaeological sites of Spain and supplied precise information not only about the temperature reached during the funerary rites, but also on the presumed duration for the cremation.     

Butchering and cooking of birds in the palaeolithic site of Grotta Romanelli (Italy)

Grotta Romanelli is one of the most important sites of the Italian palaeolithic. It contains a lithic industry from the Final Epigravettian, examples of rock and mobiliary art and numerous bone remains, among which were abundant remains of birds. Approximately 32 000 bird bones from over 3650 individuals and 109 species were identified. The most common species were bustards, Otis tetrax and O. tarda, and three species of goose, Anser fabalis, A. albifrons and Branta bernicla. Traces of butchering and burning were evident on numerous bones. The nature and location of the cut marks and burning is described here. The analysis has involved mostly the hind limbs and the shoulder girdle where traces are most numerous. The cut marks reflect a codified sequence of actions of disarticulation and dismemberment. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sea bird fowling in southern Patagonia: a contribution to understanding the nomadic round of the Canoeros Indians

As well as providing data on meat yield, avian remains can be expected to give information on seasonality, an important parameter for understanding prehistoric hunting economies. An archaeological survey conducted in the Skyring Sea (Province of Magellan, Chile) between 1992 and 1994 provided bird bone assemblages that have been analysed with this aim in mind, of which 12 are discussed here. Cormorants and steamer ducks constitute 97 per cent of the specimens identified. The proportions of avian remains are compared with the mammals remains, and mostly show a predominance of the former. The status and seasonal distribution of animal resources are discussed in order to understand the motivation for such a specialization on bird hunting, when mammals (Artiodactyls and Pinnipeds) can bring a much higher yield of meat. This nomadic marine economy can best be understood when comparisons are made with other sites from the same cultural area. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

馆藏唐代“红地团窠对鸟纹锦”的保护修复

甘肃省博物馆藏唐代"红地团窠对鸟纹锦",存在残缺、污染、糟朽等严重病害,急需进行保护修复。本工作在采用测色仪、便携式荧光光谱仪、数码相机、掌上便携式显微镜scalar等专业仪器对该纺织品文物进行无损分析检测。依据检测结果和纺织品保存现状制定了科学的保护修复方案,继而采用支撑法,选用风格相近的背衬面料进行缝合加固,并对修复难点等问题进行研究分析。修复后的织锦纹理清晰,丝线稳固,色泽协调,整体牢固度提高,达到了理想的保护修复效果。此成果对今后同类文物的保护修复具有借鉴意义。     

The molecular palaeoecology of geese: identification of archaeological goose remains using ancient DNA analysis

The remains of six species of geese are commonly recovered from archaeological sites in Britain dating from the Saxon and later periods. However, identification of this material to species level is hampered by a lack of morphological variation and a large overlap in size. To address this issue we obtained DNA sequence data for a section of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene from modern samples of each species, and successfully identified several DNA markers for Branta species. No markers were found within the cytochrome b gene for the genus Anser. Ancient DNA techniques were then used to recover DNA from goose bones excavated from two archaeological sites. The DNA sequences enabled identification of Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) from one site and confirmed the presence of Anser species at another. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Past human exploitation of birds on the Isle of Man

This paper makes comparisons between various sources—historical, ethnographic and archaeological—that relate to birds on the Isle of Man, in order to give a picture of the former uses of birds by the Manx people. Written references suggest that seabirds in particular were an important source of the essentials of life, and this is reinforced by recent archaeological evidence. The bird bones discussed are from excavations at St Patrick's Island off the west coast and Castle Rushen, Castletown. Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus were present in greater numbers than they are now, and two fragments of the now extinct great auk Pinguinis impennis were identified, confirming the presence of this species on the Isle of Man. The evidence points to over-harvesting of the shearwaters and members of the auk family. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stone Age exploitation of birds on the island of Gotland,Baltic Sea: a taphonomic study of the avifauna on the Neolithic site of Ajvide

We have conducted a detailed taphonomic study of the avifauna of the Pitted Ware culture site of Ajvide on the Island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea, in order to investigate the fowling patterns and the taphonomic history of the bird remains. We have investigated cultural as well as natural modifications on the bird bones, fragmentation and fracture patterns, and performed a systematic surface modification study. No specific area for the deposition of bird remains or specific bird species was identified. All major anatomical parts of birds are present in the assemblage, but there is a dominance of specimens from the wing elements. Traces of cultural modification were observed on the bones, including cut marks, burning, modification (implements, beads, raw material), and gnawing marks. The bone surface modifications and fracture analysis indicate that the majority of the bird bones at Ajvide did not lie on the soil surface for an extended period of time before being deposited in the soil. Dry fractures increase while fresh fractures decrease towards the upper levels of the stratigraphy, indicating more extensive post‐depositional destruction. This may partly be connected to modern agriculture, but also to later use of the settlement area as a burial ground. The Ajvide assemblage contains a variety of birds living in different biotopes. However, bird hunting was mainly focused on sea birds. Auks and ducks are the most common families in the assemblage. We find it likely that the Ajvide hunters conducted organised hunting expeditions to two nearby islands for the hunting of auks, while it was possible to hunt other birds such as ducks closer to the site. The presence of medullary bone and bones from subadult birds indicates a main hunting season in late spring and early summer. However, comparisons with modern migration patterns indicate that hunting may have occurred throughout the year. Of special palaeozoological interest is the find of gannet (Morus bassanus), which apparently in Neolithic times visited the Baltic area more regularly than today. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Considerations for the identification of ritual deposits of animal bones in Iron Age pits

Although ritual practices amongst human groups are well documented, there are often great difficulties in deducing that ritual behaviour was one of the processes leading to the deposition of prehistoric animal bones. This paper examines developments in recent British literature, particularly those related to the interpretation of certain bones found in Iron Age pits and notably at Danebury hillfort. It discusses a set of arguments or criteria on which the growing literature on ritual is based. In most instances the criteria cannot be restricted to a solely ritual interpretation and a wider range of taphonomic explanations are possible. More rigorous excavation records and discussion of evidence are required to identify ritual satisfactorily.