La parité à l'épreuve des élections municipales de mars 2001

On 6 June 2000, France adopted a law concerning 'women and men's equal access to elected office'. This gender parity law was first implemented in the municipal elections of 11 and 18 March 2001 which resulted in the proportion of women town councillors more than doubling from 21.9 per cent to 47.5 per cent in municipalities with more than 3500 residents. In other words, the law reached its quantitative goal. However, it did not have the effect of widening women's access to the most prestigious posts: those of mayors, deputy mayors, inter-town concillors ( conseillers inter-communaux ), and general councillors ( conseillers généraux ). While political parties did respect the law, they also shied away from promoting women to truly strategic positions.     

论宋代地方官吏的渎职

在宋代的乡土人情社会中,宋代的官吏为官力求法律与人情的统一,他们同时利用手中的职权尽可能多的为宗族乡党谋取私利,他们与地方豪强相互勾结,违背了其职责要求,其渎职不可避免。宋代地方官吏的渎职犯罪表现多种多样。为了预防官吏渎职犯罪的发生,宋代政府采取加强官吏思想道德教育、对移等措施。     

Colonial and Provincial Separation Movements in Australia and New Zealand, 1856–1865

This article examines separation movements in Britain’s Australasian colonies during the first decade of responsible government, 1856–65. Separation movements sought to carve new colonies from the territory of existing ones or, in the case of a number of New Zealand movements, to create new provinces within that colony’s quasi-federal system. Their demands rested upon assertions that a colonial or provincial government neglected large and prosperous hinterlands from which considerable revenue was collected. Only one colonial separation movement achieved its goal, but four provinces succeeded. I argue that responsible government played a major role in the success or failure of these movements. Responsibility concentrated authority in a remote capital; colonial separatists desired to exercise this privilege within a smaller new colony that they controlled, but its operation within the larger existing colony provided London with justification to reject most appeals. Further, it allowed New Zealand’s parliament to frame a mechanism that enabled discontented regions to become provinces without referral to local or imperial legislatures. Thus, I provide new insights into the formation of colonial polities and the influence of responsible government on settler political campaigns.     

Editorial opinion and the Whitlam government

Half of the editorials in nine Australian newspapers referred in some way to the national Labor government between December, 1972 and March, 1975. Those editorials were 21 per cent positive towards the government, 37 per cent balanced, and 42 per cent hostile towards the government. The negative 42 per cent kept editorials negative on balance for three‐quarters of the time. Only one poper, The Age, was on balance (mildly) favourable towards the government, the rest were hostile. In their month by month variations in opinion towards the government the papers tended to move up or down together, and they made two general movements downwards and two general movements upwards. Editorial opinion towards the government and public opinion towards the government moved up and down together, with changes in editorial opinion tending to foreshadow and hence possibly helping to shape changes in public opinion. Papers in the states did not resemble each other, and whether papers in the same ownership chains did so depended on the chain. Public opinion varied more with changes in the level of employment than did editorial opinion.⁸     

The Politics of Superannuation in Australasia: Saving the New Zealand Standard of Living

Support for retired individuals is one of the key policy issues facing governments throughout the OECD. The need for a long-term approach to the issue of retirement saving is well established. New Zealand and Australia have adopted different approaches to retirement saving. Two primary differences exist in retirement saving policy – New Zealand offers little in the way of incentives and there is no compulsion; conversely, Australia provides highly concessionary tax incentives and a mandatory occupational retirement savings scheme exists. This paper offers suggestions on how and why two countries that typically approach policy issues from a similar direction have adopted such different attitudes to the topic of retirement saving.     

Exhibiting enterprise: how New Zealand museums generate revenue

Museums in New Zealand are not a homogeneous group in terms of their level of incomegenerating activity or the nature of those activities. The gap of knowledge consequent on this situation led to the National Services unit of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, commissioning primary research into the revenue‐generation activities of the sector. This paper presents the results of that research, specifically the data gathered through a questionnaire. The results provide a profile of respondents in relation to their operating contexts, the sources of financial and non‐financial support they received (from the local community, local authorities and central government), and the types of income‐generating activities they undertook. The results contribute to a better understanding of both how organisations within the sector generate income (from traditional sources and new, more innovative activities) and what factors influence their ability to do so.     

'Professionalising' Participation: From Rhetoric to Practice

Local government is increasingly seeking to encourage young people's participation in local government planning and decision-making. This paper examines the relationship between professionals in local government and the young people who are the focus of local government participatory initiatives. We argue that whilst the move towards developing participation initiatives is welcome, there is a need to adopt a process of critical reflection with regard to these initiatives. The case of one New Zealand city is examined where young people express their views on the effectiveness or otherwise of their council's participation initiatives. Our findings suggest that whilst well intentioned these initiatives have had limited success in facilitating meaningful participation and perhaps the participation process as currently practised is in urgent need of review.     

晚清地方督抚权力问题再研究——兼论清末“内外皆轻”权力格局的形成

关于晚清中央与地方关系的权力格局,学界长期以来多信奉"外重内轻"说。笔者通过对清末新政时期地方督抚权力变化的研究认为,辛亥鼎革之际,中央与地方权力关系实际上已演变为"内外皆轻"的权力格局。在清末庚子至辛亥期间,随着新政尤其是预备立宪的开展,清政府不断加强中央集权措施,地方督抚的权力被收束而日益变小,其干政的影响力也有一个逐渐减弱的趋势。但与此同时,清政府中央集权的实际效力却并不显著,反而随着统治集团内部矛盾的激化而有削弱之势。这样,便形成"内外皆轻"的权力格局。一方面,清廷并没有建立强有力的中央政府,也未能真正控制全国的军权与财权,中央集权有名无实;另一方面,各省督抚也不能有效地控制地方军权与财权,在地方已没有强势督抚,更没有形成强大的地方势力。武昌起义前夕,正是地方督抚权力明显削弱,而清廷中央集权尚未强固之时,在此权力转换临界的关键时刻,革命爆发,无疑是对清王朝的致命一击。     

苏格兰地区少数族裔创业与社会资本引入

论文通过调研华裔、印度裔、巴基斯坦裔等少数族裔在苏格兰的创业活动,分析了苏格兰华裔、印度裔、巴基斯坦裔等少数族裔移民的人口与经济活动及创业障碍。认为尽管少数族裔创业对促进少数族裔就业、改善少数族裔群体生活条件、促进地区社会稳定与经济增长作出了重要贡献,但少数族裔创业仍存在难以获得外部融资、可获得建议渠道有限、创业动机不太积极、行业过分集中导致竞争激烈以及创业者素质有待提高等局限性。主要原因可归结为少数族裔创业环境的"政策缺失"和"社会资本弱化"。这两点可通过"政府引导"与"社会资本引入"管理制度的创新进行改善和补偿。     

THE IMPACT OF LOCAL DECENTRALIZATION ON ECONOMIC GROWTH: EVIDENCE FROM U.S. COUNTIES*

ABSTRACT We analyze the impact of fiscal decentralization on U.S. county population, employment, and real income growth. Our findings suggest that government organization matters for local economic growth, but that the impacts vary by government unit and by economic indicator. We find that single‐purpose governments per square mile have a positive impact on metropolitan population and employment growth, but no significant impact on nonmetropolitan counties. In contrast, the fragmentation of general‐purpose governments per capita has a negative impact on employment and population growth in nonmetropolitan counties. Our results suggest that local government decentralization matters differently for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties.     

Beyond Punitive Regulation? New Zealand Local Governments' Responses to Homelessness

Abstract: This article investigates the ways in which New Zealand local authorities respond to homelessness. It finds that while some punitive bylaws targeting homeless people exist, they are not widespread, and in three case study cities are accompanied by efforts to support social service providers. This indicates that New Zealand local authorities are prepared to look at alternatives to address homelessness, as opposed solely to following trends towards the increasing persecution of homeless people. However, cities' attitudes are subject to political whim, and on occasion they articulate an exclusive vision of public space linked to concerns for public safety and city image. Such thinking has led, for example, to homeless people being served with trespass notices by local authorities asserting “ownership” of public space. Nevertheless, the actions of New Zealand cities depart significantly from the dominant approaches seen elsewhere. This may be explained in part by the relative invisibility of homelessness in New Zealand, and by a popular distinction between “good” and “bad” homeless individuals. The net result is a generally positive approach to reducing homelessness by providing appropriate housing and support to those on the streets, complicating any direct application of the critical geographical literature on this issue to the New Zealand context.     

东汉持节问题探讨

东汉时期，国家使官员持节是实行统治的重要方式。当时国家一般通过诏令和委任官员参与国家重要活动的方式来授节。东汉国家设置的持节官有长期待节官和临时持节官。临时持节官主要参与国家的礼仪、军事、外交、安抚等活动，他们参与这些活动的意义就在于能够更有效地贯彻国家的统治意志。东汉末年，将军持节的形式开始出现变化。在将军可以持节的同时，已出现了使将军“假节”的情况。将军“假节”，可以加重其地位和参与地方的军事事务，因而，同将军持节所包含的意义已经有所不同。实际上，这已经开了魏晋时期将军具有使持节、持节、假节三种持节方式的端绪。     

Children's neighbourhoods,social centres to ‘terra incognita’

Neighbourhoods are changing as people lead more spatially dispersed lives diminishing their local social connections. This paper explores the way children interact with their neighbourhoods to see whether they are still socially connected to their neighbourhoods or leading more spatially dispersed social lives. It reports findings from a study of 92 children aged 9–11 in Dunedin, New Zealand. The study found that while many children did have minimal social contact with their neighbourhood, other children retained strong social connections. Key factors determining children's levels of social connectivity include attendance at the local school, levels of independence, neighbourhood urban form, road density and locally accessible classmates.     

The Debate that Had to Happen But Never Did: The Changing Role of Australian Local Government

The past few decades have witnessed a significant transformation in the composition of Australian local government service provision away from its traditional narrow emphasis on ‘services to property’ towards a broader ‘services to people’ approach. This process has occurred by default in an ad hoc incremental manner with virtually no debate on the changing role of local councils, unlike the New Zealand experience where a similar transition in service delivery generated public debate. In an effort to stimulate a ‘debate that had to happen but never did’, this paper seeks to establish whether a significant shift in the service mix of Australian municipalities has indeed taken place and then evaluates three stylized models of local government that could be adopted in Australia: minimalist councils; optimalist councils; and maximalist councils.     

Why Does the Cook Islands Still Need Overseas Aid?

The Cook Islands Government spends more than 40 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP). Its tax revenue is capped at 25 per cent of GDP under a 1998 austerity package agreed with its creditors New Zealand, Nauru and the Asian Development Bank. Non-tax revenue is 5 per cent of GDP, and external aid fills the resulting gap. This recently renewed reliance on aid contrasts sharply with the strong performance of the economy’s private sector, driven by a booming tourism industry, which has pushed the balance of payments into a huge surplus and raises important questions about the allocation of the gains from growth.     

Ageing in remote and cyclone‐prone communities: geography,policy, and disaster relief

Focusing on the experience of independent‐living older adults, this study explored how those in regional Australian coastal communities have coped with repeated natural disasters. Using an exploratory, mixed‐method, and phenomenological approach, an array of non‐probability snowballing techniques was used to seek participation from residents aged 65 years or more, and from emergency services officers, disaster managers, and community health care providers located in regional communities affected by Cyclone Larry (2006) and Cyclone Yasi (2011). The research found that post‐disaster political decisions have had a negative long‐term impact on local economies, causing outmigration by those seeking employment, and resulting in many elderly residents facing a future without family support. As government policies encourage ageing‐in‐place by providing subsidised in situ care, increasingly older adults are remaining in exposed vulnerable locations, reliant on authorities for their survival both day‐to‐day and during an emergency. Findings also uncovered inconsistent disaster management policies between neighbouring local government councils and an unrealistic reliance on in situ care organisations by disaster managers during preparation and recovery stages of a natural hazard. These results highlight the need for those charged with emergency management to reassess both the future natural hazard adaptive capacities of ageing regional communities and policy responses to such challenges.     

United in revolt and discourse: urban and noble perceptions of ‘bad government’ in fifteenth-century Brabant (1420–1)

This case study on the Brabantine uprising of 1420–1 reveals common ground between noble and urban political values, calling into question the dominant historiographical cleavage between noble and urban ideologies. In 1420, one of the most severe political conflicts in Brabantine history caused a coalition of members of the upper nobility and Leuven city councillors to remove Duke John IV from the throne and convict his councillors. Preceding these drastic events, both parties had written texts together to legitimise their political position and attract supporters. By analysing the writings of the insurgents, this article illustrates how these noblemen and urban councillors combined their political ideas in practice to create a coherent discourse that supported their claims to power. The analysis also emphasises the insurgents’ appropriation, interpretation and use of key notions, such as the ‘common good’, to criticise Duke John’s government and promote their cause.     

New Zealand parents' understandings of the intergenerational decline in children's independent outdoor play and active travel

Children's independent mobility and physical activity levels are declining in Western countries. In the past 20 years New Zealand children's active travel (walking and cycling) has dropped on average from 130 to 72 minutes per week, and those travelling by car to school have increased from 31% to 58%. This paper describes parents' understandings of why 9–11-year-old primary school children in suburban Auckland are less likely to walk to school and play unsupervised outdoors than they were as children. Data gathered in focus groups show understandings range from proximate neighbourhood explanations to downstream impacts of a neoliberal policy context.     

Improving Efficiency in Australian Local Government: Structural Reform as a Catalyst for Effective Reform

Municipal amalgamation has been the main policy instrument of local government structural reform programmes in Australia for well over a century. However, council consolidation programs have not achieved the intended cost savings or improved service provision promised by advocates of this means of structural reorganisation. This paper considers whether the failure of municipal amalgamation processes to produce significant economic benefits necessarily implies that structural reform programs that invoke consolidation have no place in Australian local government policy. It is argued that ‘top-down’ state government structural reform policy initiatives carrying the threat of amalgamation constitute an efficient mechanism for evoking optimal ‘bottom-up’ structural change models.     

A REGIONAL CONSUMER DEMAND MODEL FOR NEW ZEALAND*

ABSTRACT. This paper discusses the formulation and estimation of sets of demand systems for six New Zealand regions. The chosen model is based on the Linear Expenditure System, constrained in various ways to take account of interregional differences in consumer behaviour. Our results suggest that income and price elasticities of demand vary significantly between regions, suggesting that regional employment and output patterns are likely to differ in their responses to changes in aggregate demand.