水利工程与神话建构:浙江宁绍地区"梅梁"传说的生成与演化

"梅梁"传说是浙江宁绍地方神话典故,在流传过程中出现多个时空交叠与融合,这使得故事本身存在诸多的"粗糙"之处。绍兴禹庙梅梁、鄞县它山堰梅木与余姚梅澳湖梅木构成宁绍地区梅梁传说的三条主线,而三条主线寄生于区域内三种典型水利工程中。南宋以前宁绍地区水利以鉴湖为核心,梅梁传说集中在鉴湖区;南宋以后,梅梁传说出现在宁波鄞县最重要的水利工程它山堰中;北宋庆历以后杭州湾南岸大古塘修筑,南宋后期塘内农业开发渐趋成熟,梅梁故事被再发掘并显现于湖泊中。将神话请入水利工程是一种愿望的表达,梅梁故事背后承载着当地期望维持既有水利工程之目的。虽然此神话本体在构建中存在诸多解释悖论,却仍不影响其在宁绍地区的流传。     

宋元时期出太湖的东南水流与淀山湖的扩张

宋元时期淀山湖的变迁与太湖东部水文环境的转变有关。北宋中晚期,淀山湖因淀泖区域地壳沉降、吴淞江淤积分流与壅水积蓄得以扩展形成,主体水流沿着北部塘浦排入吴淞江,吴淞江、沿江塘浦与淀山湖构成高低地之间独特的溢流水利系统。南宋时期受吴淞江持续淤高影响,太湖泄水格局呈东南、东北两翼发展趋势,清水与潮水长期在淀山湖东北部水域相互顶托,淤积蔓延、围垦扩张,北流受阻的淀山湖壅水逐渐向东南方向发展。元代吴淞江主干继续淤积,淀山湖来水量持续增多,随着东北塘浦淤塞与东南海塘构建阻断淀泖出水口,水流积蓄不泄造成包括淀山湖在内的淀泖区域形成停滞性汇水区,壅水东南泛溢促成淀山湖的第二次扩张。     

潮汐灌溉与江南的水利生态(10-15世纪)

从宋代至明代,江南地区的潮汐灌溉在技术体系、地域范围上都发生了巨大变化,其原因在于江南地区的水利环境发生了重大变化:塘浦圩田体系的崩溃,使得潮汐灌溉的作用上升,但潮水带来咸水入侵、泥沙淤积等种种危害,使得闸坝的设置与管理日益重要。这一变化趋势自宋代开始,至明代黄浦江取代吴淞江的地位之后,整个江南的水利环境为之一变。感潮区在享用潮水之利的同时,也不得不承受浑潮泥沙的危害,由此最终导致这一灌溉方式的衰落。潮汐灌溉技术与水利环境这种互动的关系,典型的反映了江南感潮区水利生态的变化。     

宋代的圩田

(一) 圩田,这是兩宋时盛行于江淮、钱塘江流域的一种水利田湫拗旆ù蟮质前训透D的土地或沼澤、陂塘、湖泊、河道、河边沙地等用堤圍起來,辟为农田(其中多数是新辟田),以防止水旱,收灌溉之利,并扩大耕地面积。北宋人范仲淹解釋圩田说:“江南应有圩田,每一圩方数十里,如大域,中有河渠,外有门閘,旱則开閘,潦則閉閘,拒江水之害,旱涝不及,为农美利。”(1) 圩田是这种水利田的通称,但各地也因习慣不同而有不同的称呼。大抵兩淮与江南东、西路称圩田,浙西路称圍田,浙东路称湖田。圩田、围田和湖田实际上没有什么区別,南宋人楊万里說:“农家云:圩者,围也。”(2)元人王楨說:“复有圩     

明代江南的水利单位与地方制度:以常熟为例

明代常熟水利社会的单位规模与江南社会基层水利的变化相一致。江南水利在塘长制崩溃之后,基层水利失控,有为的水利官员借着水利工程对乡村社会进行整合以恢复水利体制。常熟的水利行政实际上与赋税制度的单位相一致。耿橘选择了区作为水利单位,并在此基础上整合了枝河流域的水利工程,重筑了自然圩以基础的共同体社会和县域水利集权。     

敦煌文献中所见唐五代时期的水利官吏

敦煌文献中保存了许多唐五代时期地方各级水利官吏的设置运作状况记录。唐代前期设都水令,为当时敦煌“统以千渠”的最高级别水利官员。中唐吐蕃统治时期设“水官”“部落水官”以及“水监”“部落水监”“地方总水监”。晚唐五代归义军时期专设水司,长官为都渠泊使,下设多名水官。敦煌绿洲四界及寿昌灌区分别设置多名有特殊责任的水官“平水”,以“平治水利”,平水“相量”为务。此外,每条灌渠、每座斗门均设渠头或斗门长,属基层一级。这套水利官吏系统层层负责,相互配合,有效保证了农田灌溉顺利进行。同时敦煌民间还自发地组织起一批“渠人社”,这对地方政府水利管理体系是有益的补充。研究历史上水利官吏系统及其运作状况,对今天河湖运行和治理管护也具有借鉴作用。     

明代浦阳江改道与萧绍平原水利转型

浦阳江改道是浙东萧绍平原开发进程中的关键节点。浦阳江下游考古资料以及嘉靖年间成图的《广舆图·浙江舆图》可以补证明代浦阳江下游河道改道前的东出流向。以改道为契机的萧绍平原综合性水利整治完成后,区域水利事务在空间上由平原内部转向外围,其主体内容也从分散的蓄泄“内水”转变为统一的障遏“外水”,由此平原河湖水系联结成完整的水利系统。改道打破了萧绍平原东西之间的河川阻隔,山阴、会稽和萧山三县围绕三江闸、江海塘和麻溪坝等水利工程的创建与维护,从分散走向“山会萧”水利共同体。     

近代东太湖的围垦与治理(1890—1937年)——以吴江地区为中心

东太湖是太湖主要出水区,生态环境敏感。光绪十六年河南客民迁入,吴江东太湖兴起围垦潮。此后到抗战前,对其治理政策经历了从光绪中后期招垦弛禁,到1914年禁垦、停补荡粮,再到1925年有限放垦的变化过程。这看似是从以财政考虑为主,到重视水利等问题,再到注重合理开发的变迁过程。然而,1914年后,由于财政需求以及治湖经费不得不依赖湖田放领的现实,官方不仅未能限制和引导围垦,设局放领和下调湖田领价,反而推动围垦无序发展,使水利状况日趋恶化。1935年大规模私围后,官方不得不拆围以避免极端后果,并制定善后方案。总之,近代转型过程中,技术和理念有所进步,却未必能真正推进环境治理,财政能力是影响治理落实的重要因素。     

《清代皖江圩区社会经济透视》评介

自古及今,兴修水利是人类发展史上至关重要的经济活动,而圩田则是稻作农业区水利建设中的杰作。所谓圩田,又称为圩垸、湖田、围田,是我国古代劳动人民根据当地河汊纵横、湖泊棋布、地势低洼的地形特征,筑造长堤短坝,内以围田、外以围水的高效优质的水利田,堪称古代劳动人民智慧的结晶和创造。圩田在长江中下游流域和珠江流域,存在广泛,历史悠久,不仅对农业的发展,     

历史上泉州的水利工程及其管理

一历代水利工程概况泉州的农业主要是经营水稻田,农家生活以米食为主,因此水利灌溉占有极重要的地位。早在唐代开发初期,已十分重视对水利的兴修。唐贞元年间（785—805）刺史赵昌“凿塘水灌田三百余顷,后昌为尚书,民思之,因名为“尚书塘”。太和年间（827—835）刺史赵,又“开晋江县天水准,灌田百八十顷,民德之”。①元和年间（806－820）泉州刺史马总“凿北山下塘灌民田”②。到五代及宋元时期,不仅兴修许多新的水利工程,而且对旧的水利设施木断进行维修和改建。如东湖在唐朝时已是泉州境内最大的湖,湖面有40顷,后因“茭葑壅…     

太湖以东的水利、水学与社会(12-14世纪)

北宋后期,官府对太湖以东地区的治水由通盘整治转向局部开江,并进行圩田开发,这一治水策略在南宋到元代继续被沿用,官方默许地方加速围垦,并逐渐放弃大浚吴淞江的工程,而在吴淞江东北、东南两翼开浦。最后,太湖以东形成以东北泄水为主导的总体局面。南宋至元代官方的水利经营,实质上成为官府与富户之间利益妥协的结果。随着不同时期水利开发重心的转移,太湖地区水利学说的重点也随之变化。     

20世纪前期天津水供给与城市生活的变迁

自来水的出现对近代城市的影响是巨大的,它改变了城市的空间结构,促进了城市市政体系的形成。天津作为一个商埠城市,租界的存在和城市行政的分割,使得水供给逐渐形成两大系统。不同的社会环境和市政制度,使自来水以不同的方式被城市社会接受。在租界,自来水的供给是近代化社区形成的基础,在老城区,自来水的传入更多表现出传统与新生活方式之间的冲突与交融。然而无论如何,从清末到民国时期,伴随着自来水进入人们的生活,健康、卫生等新的观念逐步被接受,近代城市生活方式逐渐形成。     

On the Horn-shaped Head-Dresses of the 13th, 14th,and 15th Centuries

Abstract

The excavation of the only Cistercian abbey firmly established on the Isle of Man produced clear evidence of its church plan, its various modifications and its modest architectural pretensions. The burials contained some grave goods and displayed early methods of burial. An unexpected feature was a chapel attached to the east end of the north transept north chapel.     

The Western European witch-hunt in the 16th and 17th centuries

The European witch-trials became numerous in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A large number of witches were imprisoned and many of them were executed at the stake. The ubiquitous social strain brought on the witch-hunt, and the witch became the scapegoat. Study on the witch-hunt provides a special perspective on the transition of Western Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.     

Speakers at War in the Late 14th and 15th Centuries

The significance of war in the development of the medieval English parliament is well known. The origins of the speakership are located in the context of the Hundred Years War, which began in 1337 and in which the English were still embroiled at the time of the Good Parliament of 1376. It was at this parliament that the Commons first chose a spokesperson, Sir Peter de la Mare, knight of the shire for Herefordshire. This article considers the military careers of de la Mare and his successors to the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453. Did the war have an impact on the choice of Speaker? Was a military man chosen for parliaments where military matters were to be discussed? We know the identity of the Speaker in 53 of the 64 parliaments between 1376 and 1453. Several served more than once, so that we are left with a group of 33 individuals to analyse. An overall trend is discernable. Up to 1407 all known Speakers were belted knights, and most had extensive military experience before they took up office. Only five of the 19 parliaments between 1422 and 1453 had Speakers of knightly rank: otherwise, Speakers with legal and administrative, rather than military, experience were chosen. In the years from 1407 to 1422 the speakership was occupied by a mixture of soldiers and administrators many of whom were closely connected to the royal duchy of Lancaster and to revival of English aggression towards France from 1415 onwards.     

Semantics of learned quackery in the 17th and 18th centuries

In the 17th and 18th century republic of letters the problem of scientific fraud was met with a discourse of charlatanism. Departing from Johann Burchhard Menckes famous treatise on the Charlatanry of the learned the following essay traces how the accusations of academic and scientific misconduct put in terms of 'charlatanry' primarily helped to produce the new species of the erudite 'charlatan'. Facing a growing complexity of scientific culture this new frame of meaning, structured by numerous examples of scientific misconduct offered a new way of orientation in the world of learning. But besides its cognitive impacts the discourse of charlatanry allowed to create symbolic boundaries, which determined decisions upon the affiliation or non affiliation to the new forming scientific community by separating honourable from dishonourable scientific personae. Speaking of charlatanry therefore always implied a social distinction as much as a scientific. The discourses on charlatanry also mirror differentiations within the scientific field. At first dominated by a critique built on courteous or bourgeois values, the scientific field later on developed its own criteria of appraisal like authorship, originality, transparency etc. Attracting the attention of a further growing public sphere, the explicit verbalisation of claims not relating to the value system of a republic of letters primarily concerned with the production and distribution of knowledge finally led up to a more implicit moral economy of science. A change that at a large scale level can be described both as an internalisation of the values of scientific conduct and differentiation between justiciable and unjusticiable transgressions of the norms set up by the scientific community.     

16-17世纪西欧社会的"猎巫"

The European witch-trials became numerous in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A large number of witches were imprisoned and many of them were executed at the stake. The ubiquitous social strain brought on the witch-hunt, and the witch became the scapegoat. Study on the witch-hunt provides a special perspective on the transition of Western Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. __________ Translated from Shixue Yuekan 史学月刊 (Journal of Historical Science), 2007, (8): 64–71     

中共十六大与八大的比较研究

八大是中国共产党成为执政党后召开的第一次全国代表大会,这次代表大会分析了生产资料所有制的社会主义改造基本完成后的形势,提出了全面开展社会主义建设的任务,在指导思想、政治路线和组织路线上都有重要建树,对探索中国特色社会主义的道路产生了深远的影响。十六大是中国共产党执政52年后在新世纪召开的第一次全国代表大会,也是中国共产党在开始实施社会主义现代化建设第三步战略部署的新形势下召开的一次具有深远影响的重要大会。对八大和十六大进行比较研究,可以发现其一脉相承的内在联系,可以加深对十六大确立的指导思想、奋斗目标、组织路线的认识。