NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS AT THE BRITISH MUSEUM,LONDON

Neutron activation analysis was used at the British Museum from 1978 until 2002 for provenance studies on ceramics and marble. Significant numbers of the items analysed were of high quality and value, and careful sampling was necessary to avoid damage to the object. An in‐house British Museum Standard Pottery was established and inter‐calibrated with a number of standards used by other archaeometry laboratories. The results of the projects have been published in many papers, and the databases established will be of use to future scholars interested in the ceramic groups represented. Projects on Greek and Near Eastern pottery have been undertaken. Relatively large numbers of north European medieval and post‐medieval pottery samples were analysed, as well as the tin‐glazed ceramics of Spain and Italy. Classical marble has also formed the subject of another project and a database of quarry material has been established.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL PETROLOGY AND THE ARCHAEOMETRY OF LITHIC MATERIALS*

For 50 years, archaeologists and physical scientists have been dating, determining the composition of and measuring stone tools, and reporting them in Archaeometry and many other journals. In Archaeometry specifically, the number of papers devoted to the analysis of lithic material has increased at least 30 times since 1958 and volume 1. This is a reflection not only of an increase in the number of scholars devoting their time to the archaeometry of stone, but also of increases in the quality and quantity of instrumental technology available to researchers in the field.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION PATTERNING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AT THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ‘DEMOKRITOS’: THE CASE OF BLACK‐ON‐RED NEOLITHIC POTTERY FROM MACEDONIA,GREECE

A short history of the application of NAA in the characterization of archaeological materials at the National Center for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, Athens, is presented. NAA was first applied in archaeology in 1974 at the Radioanalytical Laboratory, and since 1989 has been one of the primary analytical techniques of the ‘Demokritos’ archaeometry programme. A case study is also presented, concerning chemical patterning of the black‐on‐red Neolithic pottery class from Macedonia. Four chemical groups were identified, each corresponding to a different area of production. It is shown that this standardized concept of pottery technology and style was spread out within at least eastern Macedonia.     

我国科技考古研究的新进展

根据第九届全国科技考古学术讨论会上所报告和收到的103篇论文的内容,对我国科技考古的进展作一简要介绍.内容涉及生物考古和农业考古、年代测定、陶瓷考古、冶金考古、玉器及玻璃器的产地和结构分析以及环境考古、遥感考古和文物保护等.这些论文的内容充分展示了近些年来我国科技考古研究的最新成果和动态,全面反映了我国科技考古研究的发展方向.     

A REVIEW OF SUPERVISED AND UNSUPERVISED PATTERN RECOGNITION IN ARCHAEOMETRY*

Principal component, cluster and discriminant analysis are multivariate statistical methods that are widely used in archaeometry. They are examples of what are known in some literatures as unsupervised and supervised learning methods. Over the past 20 years or so, a wide variety of other learning methods have been developed that take advantage of modern computing power and, in some cases, have been designed to handle data sets more complex than those often used in archaeometric data analysis. To date, these methods have had little impact on archaeometry. This paper reviews, in a largely non‐technical manner, the ideas behind these newer methods; illustrates their use on a variety of data sets; and attempts to assess their potential for future archaeometric use.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ‘BEST RELATIVE FIT FACTOR’ WHEN EVALUATING ELEMENTAL CONCENTRATION DATA OF POTTERY DEMONSTRATED WITH MYCENAEAN SHERDS FROM SINDA,CYPRUS

Neutron activation analysis of pottery was established at Bonn in 1983 and has since become one of the primary archaeometry‐based analytical techniques at the facility. A brief history of the laboratory and a discussion of the best relative fit procedure for pottery is provided. When comparing concentration data for pottery, a best relative fit should always be considered. This mathematical procedure generally results in ‘sharper’ concentration patterns and improves the separability of chemically not very different compositional groups. This is demonstrated for a set of 30 Late Cypriot (Myc. IIIC1) pottery samples from Sinda, Cyprus, which allow formation of a good reference pattern for this site. Applying factors in the range of 0.82–1.43, a number of samples from Egypt and Palestine can be assigned with high probability to a Cypriot origin.     

THE HISTORY OF THE LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS PROGRAMME FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS

The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory pottery provenance group developed standards and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) methods that are used at many archaeometry laboratories around the world. The background and development of ‘Standard Pottery’ and of methods for INAA are described. Early pottery provenance studies are described, and other research programmes, involving obsidian and magmatic mixing, the origin of the stone used for the Colossi of Memnon, and the ‘Plate of Brass’, are mentioned. Research work by the Laboratory included the discovery of the world‐wide iridium anomaly and extensive subsequent research on what has come to be known as the ‘Asteroid Impact Theory’. Characteristics of the analytical programme for pottery provenance work, including overall aims, precision and accuracy, intercalibration, and irradiation and measurement protocols, are discussed. New research areas developed in the past 15 years, to broaden the usefulness of chemical compositional data for archaeological investigation, and examples of recent work, are described. This research, which makes use of high‐precision X‐ray fluorescence analysis in addition to INAA measurements on sample splits, includes distinguishing the products of different workshops located at the same production site, studies on the significance of the distribution of silver in archaeological pottery and the use of high‐precision chemical compositional data as an aid for making chronological distinctions.     

MATHEMATICS,STATISTICS AND ARCHAEOMETRY: THE PAST 50 YEARS OR SO*

This review of developments in the use of mathematics and statistics in archaeometry over the past 50 years is partial, personal and ‘broad‐brush’. The view is expressed that it is in the past 30 years or so that the major developments have taken place. The view is also expressed that, with the exception of methods for analysing radiocarbon dates and increased computational power, mathematical and statistical methods that are currently used, and found to be useful in widespread areas of application such as provenance studies, don't differ fundamentally from what was being done 30 years ago.     

CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SASANIAN AND EARLY ISLAMIC GLAZED CERAMICS FROM THE DEH LURAN PLAIN,SOUTHWESTERN IRAN*

One hundred and seventy‐five glazed ceramics from Sasanian and Early Islamic period sites located on the Deh Luran Plain in southwestern Iran were examined by instrumental neutron activation analysis for characterizing differences in ceramic pastes and by laser‐ablation inductively coupled plasma mass‐spectrometry for identifying the constituents of the ceramic glazes. The results of the analysis reveal that alkaline‐based glazed ceramics have paste compositions that are distinct from contemporary and later ceramics decorated with alkaline–low‐lead and lead‐based glazes.     

DETECTING FORGERIES AMONG ANCIENT GOLD OBJECTS USING THE U,Th–4He DATING METHOD*

Forgeries of ancient gold objects are prevalent in almost every collection and some public exhibitions in the past have been exposed as containing forgeries to an embarrassing extent. This situation comes from the fact that it is sometimes impossible to unequivocally recognize forgeries based on their patina or manufacturing and decoration characteristics. We demonstrate that for 13 ancient gold objects the time of their last melting process can be estimated using the U,Th–⁴He dating technique. The extremely small quantities of radiogenic ⁴He found, due to the young age and small sample size, require the use of a specially designed ultrasensitive mass spectrometer. We show that the proposed method is a powerful, and the only, quantitative tool in archaeometry for discriminating between fake and genuine ancient gold objects.     

LOG‐RATIO COMPOSITIONAL DATA ANALYSIS IN ARCHAEOMETRY*

Compositional data arise commonly in archaeometry, in the study of artefact compositions where the variables measured either sum to 100%, or can be viewed as a subset of such a set of variables. There has been debate in Archaeometry about the appropriate way to analyse such data statistically, which amounts to argument about how the data should be transformed prior to statistical analysis. This paper reviews aspects of the debate and illustrates, using both simulated and real data, that what has been proposed as the ‘correct’ theoretical approach—log‐ratio analysis—does not always work well. The reasons for this are discussed.     

UNOFFICIAL COINAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY ad IN THE GALLO‐ROMAN WORLD: CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ANALYSES FOR DETERMINING THE LOCALIZATION OF THE WORKSHOP*

The third century ad was a complex period of crisis in the Roman world. In this paper, official and unofficial antoniniani, and double sestercii and sestercii, were analysed by fast neutron activation analysis (FNAA) to determine the alloys used by the craftsmen for producing forgeries. Moreover, at Châteaubleau, archaeologists discovered antoniniani and bronze forgeries from Postumus. Similar materials have been found in other hoards. They are believed to have been produced by a workshop called ‘atelier II’ by numismatists. The question was whether it is possible to differentiate the Châteaubleau production from the atelier II production.     

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF CHINESE PORCELAIN AND STONEWARE BODIES AND THE RESULTING MICROSTRUCTURES*

The microstructures of porcelain and stoneware bodies from north and south China, spanning the period from the Tang to the Ming dynasty (7th–17th centuries ad ), were examined in polished sections in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) after etching the sections with hydrofluoric acid (HF). Mullite, present as fine, mainly elongated crystals, is the dominant crystalline phase observed. The bulk chemical compositions of the bodies are determined by energy‐dispersive spectrometry in the SEM, and the relative amounts of mullite and quartz present in the different ceramics are estimated from X‐ray diffraction measurements. Mullite formed from areas of kaolinitic clay, mica particles and feldspar particles is distinguished through a combination of the arrangement of the mullite crystals, and the associated SiO₂/Al₂O₃ wt% concentration ratios. It is shown that very different microstructures are observed in ceramic bodies produced using kaolinitic clay from north China (Ding porcelain and Jun stoneware), porcelain stone from south China (qingbai and underglaze blue porcelain and Longquan stoneware), and stoneware clays from south China (Yue and Guan stonewares). Therefore, SEM examination of HF‐etched, polished sections of the bodies of high‐refractory ceramics has considerable potential for investigating the raw materials used in their production.     

ISOTOPES ON THE BEACH,PART 1: STRONTIUM ISOTOPE RATIOS AS A PROVENANCE INDICATOR FOR LIME RAW MATERIALS USED IN ROMAN GLASS‐MAKING

The provenancing of Roman natron glass is one of the most challenging problems in the field of archaeometry. Although the use of Sr and Nd isotope ratios and trace element signatures as an indication of provenance has proven promising, there are still many unknowns. In this study, the influence of the different raw materials on the final Sr isotopic composition of Roman natron glass is examined. It is shown that the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio in natron glass is significantly influenced by the silicate fraction of the sand used and does not always provide a clear indication of the lime source used.     

CHEMICAL ASSAYS OF TEMPER AND CLAY: MODELLING POTTERY PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE IN THE UPLANDS NORTH OF THE PHOENIX BASIN,ARIZONA, USA*

A lack of mineralogical variation characterizes the prehistoric pottery in the uplands of central Arizona. Virtually all of the ceramics in that region were tempered with phyllite, which has previously precluded provenance analyses and the investigation of pottery production and distribution in the upland zone. As shown with assays with an electron microprobe, however, both the clay fraction and the temper fragments are chemically diverse and geographically distinct, allowing many of the phyllite‐tempered wares to be sourced, thereby leading to models about the organization of ceramic production and exchange in the upland zone north of the Phoenix Basin.     

The Archaeometric Characterization of Majolica Ceramics from Talavera de la Reina and El Puente del Arzobispo (Toledo,Spain)

In this study, an archaeometric characterization of 32 ceramic fragments from Talavera de la Reina and El Puente del Arzobispo, dated between the 16th and 18th centuries, has been carried out. Together with three fragments of biscuit, they have been analysed through X‐ray diffraction (XRD), X‐ray fluorescence (XRF), differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis (DSC–TGA). From these chemical results, a statistical study using exclusively majolica ceramics has been carried out. This work has allowed us to find certain differences between the manufactures of the two production centres on the basis of their chemical composition. The mineralogical study has allowed us to determine the estimated firing temperatures of each sample, using the estimated firing temperature (EFT) as an argument for their classification into three fabrics.     

GLAZED CERAMIC MANUFACTURING IN SOUTHERN TUSCANY (ITALY): EVIDENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONTINUITY THROUGHOUT THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (10TH–14TH CENTURIES)*

Archaeometric investigation allowed the characterization of two important classes of ceramics: ‘vetrina sparsa’ and ‘invetriata grezza’. Their archaeological peculiarity makes them particularly suited for tracing the evolution of glaze manufacturing in southern Tuscany throughout the medieval period (10th–14th centuries). These ceramics were found in different sites of historical importance, and also from a mining perspective. Local copper, lead, zinc and iron mineralizations supported the growth of several settlements in the vicinity of the mines. The many castles and different archaeological finds (ceramics, glazed ceramic, slag etc.) attest to the intense mineral exploitation of the area from at least the first millennium bc up to the modern period. In light of these geological and archaeological characteristics, archaeometric investigation was intended to provide insight into ancient technical knowledge of ceramic glazing and to determine the source area for raw materials in the medieval period (10th–14th centuries). Ceramic bodies were analysed through OM, XRDp, SEM–EDS and XRF, while coatings were investigated through SEM–EDS. Mineralogical, petrographic and chemical analyses revealed slightly different preparation and firing processes for the two classes of ceramics. These data suggest the continuity through the centuries of the ‘vetrina sparsa’ and ‘invetriata grezza’ production technology. The mineralogical phases, such as monazite, xenotime, zircon, barite, Ti oxide, ilmenite, titanite, tourmaline and ilvaite, and the lithic (intrusive and volcanic) fragments detected within the ceramic bodies suggest a source area in the vicinity of the Campiglia mining district. Lastly, the presence of Cu–Zn–Pb (Ag) and Fe sulphide mineralizations (materials used to produce glaze) in the area supports the hypothesis of local manufacture.     

MULTIVARIATE MIXTURE OF NORMALS WITH UNKNOWN NUMBER OF COMPONENTS: AN APPLICATION TO CLUSTER NEOLITHIC CERAMICS FROM AEGEAN AND ASIA MINOR USING PORTABLE XRF*

Multivariate techniques and especially cluster analysis have been commonly used in archaeometry. Exploratory and model‐based techniques of clustering have been applied to geochemical (continuous) data of archaeological artefacts for provenance studies. Model‐based clustering techniques such as classification maximum likelihood and mixture maximum likelihood have been used to a lesser extent in this context and, although they seem to be suitable for such data, they either present practical difficulties—such as high dimensionality of the data—or their performance gives no evidence that they are superior to standard methods. In this paper standard statistical methods (hierarchical clustering, principal components analysis) and the recently developed model‐based multivariate mixture of normals with an unknown number of components, are applied and compared. The data set provides chemical compositions of 188 ceramic samples derived from the Aegean islands and surrounding areas.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF ROMAN AFRICAN RED SLIP WARE KILNS

Roman African Red Slip ware (ARS) sherds from four ARS kiln sites in modern-day Tunisia (El Mahrine, El Ala, Oudna and Pheradi Maius) have been analysed using instrumental neutron activation analysis. Multivariate statistical methods (including cluster analysis and Manhattan City Block distances), with a dilution correction applied to the data, were used to interpret the concentration data. Reference groups for each of the four kiln sites were established. Both El Mahrine and Oudna were described by two dilution-related groups. These kiln groups were all shown to be compositionally distinct from each other and suitable for use in provenance studies.