Digital cementum luminance analysis (DCLA): a tool for the analysis of climatic and seasonal signals in dental cementum

Cementum banding patterns have been used by archaeozoologists and wildlife managers for a number of decades to assess the season and age at death of mammalian populations. However, the observation and measurement of the nature of cementum banding, especially that of the final band, has proved to be difficult except under conditions of excellent preservation and advanced microscopy. The research presented here details a method for extracting luminance data from the banding patterns of cementum in order to quantify the optical properties of cementum tissue. By doing so, analysis of the relationship between cementum deposition and environmental variables is achieved. We present the results of a digital cementum luminance analysis (DCLA) on a sample of first molars from two species, Ovis aries, Soay and Capra ibex. The results indicate that significant relationships occur between seasonal temperature changes and cementum histology. Furthermore, we show that luminance values can be used to assess the geographical range of genetically similar populations. Our results demonstrate that the study of luminance is a vital tool for the quantitative study of dental cementum for both archaeological and ecological studies. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Observations on Seasonality and Mortality from a Recent Catastrophic Death Assemblage

On 3 November 1991, a group of 150 pronghorn went over a cliff near Green River, Wyoming. This mortality site provides a unique opportunity to examine a number of characteristics of catastrophic death assemblages that may aid in the interpretation of archaeological bonebed sites. In 1993, the mandibles were collected for a study of seasonality and age estimation. Examination of seasonality revealed some variation in estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increments. Six percent of 86 fawn specimens exhibit eruption and wear more advanced than expected for a November third event, and 21% of 28 cementum increment estimates differ from the known November third mortality date by a month or more. These data suggest some degree of error is inherent in seasonality estimates that must be considered when interpreting seasonal distributions. Age estimates by eruption and wear reveal a distribution of pronghorn ages with many more juvenile animals than expected for a known “catastrophic” event. This may be explained by the pattern of seasonal hunting in a modern managed herd, which is likely to be very different than aboriginal hunting patterns. Age estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increment techniques failed to agree within six months in 48% of 29 test cases, with a tendency for cementum ages to be younger in 71% of specimens in which estimates of age differed. In general, the mandible assemblage exhibited more variability than one might expect for a single catastrophic kill event.     

Site formation processes in caves: The Holocene sediments of the Haua Fteah,Cyrenaica, Libya

Caves have yielded some of the most globally important archaeological sequences, but often their interpretation has suffered from assumptions about cave sedimentary processes. Caves contain distinctive sedimentary environments: this has major implications for the understanding of contained archaeological materials. This paper describes and analyses the Holocene sediments in the Haua Fteah, a sequence regarded as essentially continuous by the original excavator. 50 years after it was first excavated, the Haua's Epipalaeolithic to post-Classical chronological range and rich finds make it still the key Holocene archaeological site in North Africa. The reassessment shows, however, that the sequence is strongly discontinuous and this has major implications for the reinterpretation of the site, as the highly-resolved archaeological record is thus likely to reflect a series of brief occupations, rather than continuous human activity. As with many caves, the sedimentary record in the Haua Fteah is an extremely sensitive indicator of environments and processes in the wider landscape. Secure understanding of sedimentary process, from analysis of the highly individual records found in caves, is essential for full understanding of their contained archaeology.     

Polarizing Microscopy Identification of Chemical Diagenesis in Archaeological Cementum

Cementum increment analysis can potentially retrieve relatively complete, high-precision seasonality and mortality profiles from archaeological mammalian tooth assemblages. However, cementum exhibits many similarities to bone in composition, histology, ultrastructure, and even microstructure. Consequently, the mineralized dental tissue may be prone to the same processes of post-depositional chemical alteration that affect bone. This article reviews the issues surrounding chemical diagenesis in cementum and presents a new application to archaeological ungulate cementum of a polarizing microscopy technique that has previously been utilized to identify the effects of chemical diagenesis in archaeological bone and human cementum (Geusa et al., 1999; Gilbert, 1989; Watson, 1975; Zeder, 1978). It is argued that the post mortem leaching of collagen and the diagenetic growth of apatite crystallites can develop into banded features that mimic seasonal cementum increments. This pattern of diagenesis is demonstrated in multiple locations on a macroscopically well-preserved Upper Pleistocene-age archaeological tooth, which was previously interpreted by the author to exhibit biogenic seasonal cementum increments (Stutz, 1993; Stutz et al., 1995). It is suggested that if researchers seek to retrieve seasonality and mortality data from archaeological cementum, the microscopy analysis protocol must include screening of a pilot sample for the frequency and extent of chemical diagenesis.     

Re-analysis of faunal assemblages from the Haua Fteah and other late quaternary archaeological sites in Cyrenaican Libya

In preliminary reports based on approximately 5000 identified bones from the Haua Fteah, Cyrenaica, E. S. Higgs concluded that changes in the abundance of bovines versus Barbary sheep reflected climatic change from drier (=last interglaciation) to wetter (=last glaciation) and back to drier (=present interglaciation). Higgs also reported the earliest occurrence of domestic caprines in Africa, in Haua Fteah “Neolithic” layers dated to about 6800 bp. A new analysis, based on roughly 9000 identified specimens, supports the broad pattern of faunal change that Higgs found, but suggests that it reflects wetter when Higgs proposed drier and vice versa. The new analysis failed to confirm the early date for domestic caprines, mainly because of uncertainty concerning the stratigraphic provenience of key specimens. Finally, the new analysis produced some additions to the species list (most notably eland) and provided previously unavailable information on skeletal part representation and on the ages of animals at time of death. With respect to skeletal parts, smaller ungulates tend to be represented by a wider variety than larger ones, a contrast that is almost universal in Stone Age sites. With regard to age profiles, the largest and most reliable one (for Barbary sheep from the “Neolithic” layers) implies the animals were captured by driving over cliffs or into other traps. Restudy of small additional samples from the Cyrenaican sites of Hagfet et Tera, Hagfet ed Dabba, and Sidi el Hajj Creiem fully supports taxonomic and paleoenvironmental conclusions drawn earlier by Higgs and Bate.     

Bison breeding characteristics and interpretation of archaeological seasonality revisited

Bison breeding behaviour has been used for the last three decades as the basis for developing methods for assigning season‐of‐occupation estimates to archaeological sites on the North American Plains. These methods are based upon the supposition that the North American bison breeding season is extremely short and that genetically controlled ontological characteristics such as foetal growth and tooth eruption sequences can therefore be used to infer site seasonality in a reasonably straightforward and precise manner. This paper reviews bison population studies conducted during the past 30 years to reassess present understandings of the length of North American bison breeding seasons. It is concluded that the bison breeding season regularly extends over a period of three to four months, and that initiation of ontological development will therefore also vary over the same period of time. Bison development characteristics cannot provide a reliable or precise means of assigning seasonality to archaeological sites on the North American Plains. It is suggested that methods using physical characteristics such as dental cementum incrementation which are directly affected by seasonal changes could be more productive. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Variability in cementum deposition in springbok from the South African Cape

Over the past two decades, cementum increment analysis has played an important role in determining the season of death of ungulates at archaeological sites in many parts of the world, but its potential to address questions of seasonality in South African prehistory has remained largely unexplored. The ability to determine the seasonality of hunting practices would prove an important asset to understanding the foraging strategies and mobility patterns of Middle and Later Stone Age people in this region. A sample of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) of known date-of-death was collected from the South African Cape, a region across which three different rainfall regimes are represented. This study documents a very general correspondence between rainfall patterns and cementum development in springbok but also a level of variability that exceeds that observed by studies in other regions. In two sub-samples in which the sex of all individuals is known, cementum deposition among females is more strongly correlated with season of death than it is among males. This difference may reflect the social organization of springbok. The findings for springbok highlight the complexity of applying cementum increment analysis to archaeological studies not only on the Cape but also in regions of similar climatic variability.     

Skeletal evidence for morbidity and mortality in Copper Age samples from northeastern Hungary

Analysis of 183 human skeletons representing the Copper Age in northeastern Hungary indicates slightly less morbidity and mortality than found in previous studies of later Bronze Age and Iron Age samples from the same area. Mean adult age at death was 33.4 years for males and 32.9 years for females. Life table reconstruction revealed a life expectancy at birth of about 28 years, and at age 15 of about 17 years. Frequencies of dental hypoplasia (<1%) and carious lesions (2.3%) were relatively low. Comparisons of the Copper Age data reported here with previously published studies of later Bronze Age and Iron Age samples from the same area revealed little or no change in life expectancy at age 15, long bone diaphyseal circumference, estimated living stature, frequencies of dental hypoplasia, alveolar abscesses, tooth loss, adult porotic hyperostosis or trauma. Temporal increases were detected in life expectancy at birth, dental caries frequency, cribra orbitalia, subadult periosteal lesions and vertebral osteoarthritis. The study is part of a larger effort to examine long‐term temporal changes in skeletal samples from that region. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Taphonomy,life history,and human exploitation of Rhinoceros sinensis at the Middle Pleistocene site of Panxian Dadong,Guizhou, China

Rhinoceros remains are commonly found in Chinese Pleistocene archaeological localities. This study examines the characteristics of the Rhinoceros sinensis sample from Panxian Dadong, a karst cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province, with a mammalian fauna in association with stone artefacts and human remains from the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6‐8). The distribution of skeletal elements shows a predominance of foot (metapodial and phalanges) and lower limb (carpals and tarsals) bones, while the dental age‐at‐death profile, constructed using dental eruption and tooth wear data, is characterised by a high frequency of prime age adult teeth. There is little taphonomic evidence for the involvement of non‐human carnivores or natural agencies in the formation of the faunal assemblage. Instead, it appears that human activities were responsible for the unexpected prevalence of prime age adults. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

REFINING ESTIMATES FOR THE SEASON OF SHELLFISH COLLECTION ON THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST: APPLYING HIGH‐RESOLUTION STABLE OXYGEN ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND SCLEROCHRONOLOGY

Stable oxygen isotopes from estuarine bivalve carbonate from Saxidomus gigantea were analysed combined with high‐resolution sclerochronology from modern and archaeological shells from British Columbia, Canada, to determine the seasonality of shellfish collection from the archaeological site of Namu. The combination of high‐resolution sclerochronology and a micro‐milled sampling strategy for δ¹⁸O analysis permits a precise estimate of archaeological seasonality, because seasonal freshwater influxes and changes in temperature have dual effects on the δ¹⁸O value of the shell. Sclerochronological analysis identifies the timing and duration of growth that is temporally aligned to stable oxygen isotope results, since δ¹⁸O_shell appears to be strongly influenced by seasonal inputs of very low δ¹⁸O snowmelt‐water from adjacent coastal mountain ranges. The results show that shellfish were collected year‐round at this site over a 4000‐year period, and these data combined with other zooarchaeological lines of evidence support the interpretation of year‐round occupation.     

Incremental banding in dental cementum: Methods of preparation for teeth from archaeological sites and for modern comparative specimens

Analysis of incremental banding in dental cementum is a well-established means of determining the age and season of death of wild mammals. The dental cementum of domesticated mammals likewise can indicate age and season of death. Methods of preparation applicable to archaeological teeth differ from those used for modern specimens, however, and this paper describes two methods that have given excellent imaging on teeth of Bos taurus; one for modern teeth and the other for teeth from archaeological sites.     

At the Cutting Edge: Using Thin Sectioning to Determine Season of Death of the European Oyster,Ostrea edulis

Although there have been many seasonality studies of shellfish from archaeological sites, a technique for understanding season of death for Ostrea edulis has never been attained. A methodology was achieved through thin sectioning shells from a large modern control sample collected from different locations and environments. It was found that annual lines were formed in March and April. Measuring increments was not a feasible technique for interpreting month of death so seasonal changes in the microstructure were noted instead. A blind test was carried out showing that overall 91% of assessments were correct±1 month. A second blind test by a student showed the technique may be learnt but that a large time investment is needed.     

Assessment of Relationships Between Precipitation and Satellite Derived Vegetation Condition Within South Australia

The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) has evolved as a primary tool for monitoring continental‐scale vegetation changes and interpreting the impact of short to long‐term climatic events on the biosphere. The objective of this research was to assess the nature of relationships between precipitation and vegetation condition, as measured by the satellite‐derived NDVI within South Australia. The correlation, timing and magnitude of the NDVI response to precipitation were examined for different vegetation formations within the State (forest, scrubland, shrubland, woodland and grassland). Results from this study indicate that there are strong relationships between precipitation and NDVI both spatially and temporally within South Australia. Differences in the timing of the NDVI response to precipitation were evident among the five vegetation formations. The most significant relationship between rainfall and NDVI was within the forest formation. Negative correlations between NDVI and precipitation events indicated that vegetation green‐up is a result of seasonal patterns in precipitation. Spatial patterns in the average NDVI over the study period closely resembled the boundaries of the five classified vegetation formations within South Australia. Spatial variability within the NDVI data set over the study period differed greatly between and within the vegetation formations examined depending on the location within the state. ACRONYMS AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ENVSAEnvironments of South Australia EOS Terra‐Earth Observing System EVIEnhanced Vegetation Index MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro‐radiometer MVC Maximum Value Composite NDVINormalised Difference Vegetation Index NIRNear Infra‐Red NOAANational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration SPOT Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre     

海南入境旅游季节性特征与调控措施

本文利用2006-2010年海南入境旅游资料,采用旅游月日指数、季节性集中指数,研究海南入境旅游季节性特征,得出以下结论:(1)海南入境旅游旺季为11月到次年4月,淡季为6、9月,国外游客市场、香港、澳门和台湾市场旅游淡旺季不同步;(2)近年海南入境客流季节性强度呈逐年减弱趋势;(3)不同入境旅游市场中,澳门市场旅游季节性强度最强,国外市场、香港、台湾市场依次减弱;国外市场中主要客源国的旅游季节性特征不同;(4)自然因素是海南入境旅游季节性形成的主要影响因素,制度因素在自然因素基础上产生叠加作用;(5)可通过制定季节性价格、完善旅游设施、丰富旅游产品、加强营销手段等策略调控季节性变化,拓展海南省入境旅游,缩小旅游淡旺季差距。     

Comparing methods for analysing mortality profiles in zooarchaeological and palaeontological samples

In this study, I examine three methods that are currently used for comparing mortality profiles from zooarchaeological and palaeontological samples: (1) histograms with 10% of life‐span age classes; (2) boxplots showing tooth crown height medians; and (3) triangular plots of the proportions of young, prime and old animals. I assess the advantages and disadvantages of each method using data collected on two samples of Northern Yellowstone elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) with known, or cementum annuli‐determined, ages at death. One sample was hunted by wolves (n = 96), and the other was hunted by recent humans using rifles (n = 226). I tested each method with the known or cementum annuli age distributions and with age estimation techniques appropriate for archaeological assemblages. Histograms are best used when the relationship between dental eruption/attrition and age is well established so that individuals can be confidently assigned into 10% of life‐span groups, and when more than 30 or 40 individuals are present in the assemblage. Boxplots employ raw crown heights, thus removing the error introduced by assigning specimens to age classes, and therefore they allow the analysis of species where the relationship between dental eruption/attrition and age is unknown. Confidence intervals around the medians allow samples to be statistically compared. Triangular plots are easy to use and allow multiple samples and species to be considered simultaneously, but samples cannot be statistically compared. Modified triangular plots bootstrap samples to provide 95% confidence ellipses, allowing for statistical comparisons between samples. When possible, samples should be examined using multiple methods to increase confidence in the results. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

EVAPORITES OF THE WADI NATRUN: SEASONAL AND ANNUAL VARIATION AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR ANCIENT EXPLOITATION*

The evaporitic deposits of the Wadi Natrun on the edge of the Western Desert of Egypt have been used in variety of crafts and industries for over 6000 years. This paper reviews the formation processes of the evaporitic deposits between the different lakes in the wadi and for the wadi as a whole. It shows that the precipitation of sodium carbonate minerals within the lakes is seasonal and probably subject to long‐term fluctuation as climate varies. This has a significant impact on the use of the lakes for ancient industries, particularly the manufacture of glass.     

INVESTIGATING SEASONALITY AND SEASON OF BIRTH IN PAST HERDS: A REFERENCE SET OF SHEEP ENAMEL STABLE OXYGEN ISOTOPE RATIOS

Intra‐tooth sequential analysis of enamel δ¹⁸O is currently used to investigate birth seasonality in past animal populations, offering new insights into seasonal availability of animal resources, herd management and seasonality of site occupation. Reference data sets are still required to address two major difficulties: (1) that inter‐individual variability in the record of the seasonal cycle is affected by tooth size; and (2) that the season of birth cannot be directly estimated from the timing of tooth growth, because of a delay in enamel mineralization. We present a data set acquired on the lower second molar of 10 modern sheep from Rousay (Orkney) born within a few weeks of each other in April/May and submitted to the same environmental conditions until death. All sheep have recorded a sinusoidal pattern of δ¹⁸O variation spanning approximately a year. From the difference between the expected and the measured time sequence, the delay of enamel mineralization is estimated to be 5–6 months. The data set is then described using a model mainly based on a cosine function. The period, corresponding to the length of the M2 crown formed over a year, averaged 35.8 mm. A very slight variation of tooth growth rate with time and no attenuation of the isotopic signal towards the cervical margin of the crown could be detected in this data set. The lowest δ¹⁸O values, corresponding to the sheep's first winter, were tracked at a distance from the enamel/root junction that varied between 23.0 and 30.3 mm (x_min mean = 27.6 mm); the highest δ¹⁸O values, corresponding to the sheep's second summer, were between 6.3 and 11.6 mm (x_max mean = 9.9 mm). Most of the variability can be attributed to tooth size. When normalized on the period, x_min and x_max are 0.28 (± 0.05) and 0.78 (± 0.05) on average, meaning that the Rousay sheep have recorded the minimum and maximum δ¹⁸O values on average at 78% and 28%, respectively, of the end of the periodic cycle recorded in the second molar.     

NORBERT ELIAS,THE CIVILIZING PROCESS: SOCIOGENETIC AND PSYCHOGENETIC INVESTIGATIONS—AN OVERVIEW AND ASSESSMENT

Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process, which was published in German in 1939 and first translated into English in two volumes in 1978 and 1982, is now widely regarded as one of the great works of twentieth‐century sociology. This work attempted to explain how Europeans came to think of themselves as more “civilized” than their forebears and neighboring societies. By analyzing books about manners that had been published between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries, Elias observed changing conceptions of shame and embarrassment with respect to, among other things, bodily propriety and violence. To explain those developments, Elias examined the interplay among the rise of state monopolies of power, increasing levels of economic interconnectedness among people, and pressures to become attuned to others over greater distances that led to advances in identifying with others in the same society irrespective of social origins. Elias's analysis of the civilizing process was not confined, however, to explaining changing social bonds within separate societies. The investigation also focused on the division of Europe into sovereign states that were embroiled in struggles for power and security. This article provides an overview and analysis of Elias's principal claims in the light of growing interest in this seminal work in sociology. The analysis shows how Elias defended higher levels of synthesis in the social sciences to explain relations between “domestic” and “international” developments, and changes in social structure and in the emotional lives of modern people. Elias's investigation, which explained long‐term processes of development over several centuries, pointed to the limitations of inquiries that concentrate on short‐term intervals. Only by placing short‐term trends in long‐term perspective could sociologists understand contemporary developments. This article maintains that Elias's analysis of the civilizing process remains an exemplary study of long‐term developments in Western societies over the last five centuries.     

Seasonality and paleodiet in the Chiribaya polity of southern Peru

In the Andes, the complex Chiribaya polity, or señorío, was composed of economically specialized groups. Previous carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of archaeological human bone from Chiribaya-affiliated sites have effectively demonstrated socioeconomic specialization and variability in paleodiet among different Chiribaya-affiliated sites. The present study complements earlier paleodietary analyses of Chiribaya populations by supplementing them with carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of archaeological human hair from the two Chiribaya-affiliated sites of Chiribaya Alta and El Yaral. These new data demonstrate that seasonal variability in the consumption of marine products and C₄ plants such as maize was quite high for some individuals buried at Chiribaya-affiliated sites. In addition to elucidating the complex patterns of Chiribaya seasonality, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge of archaeological analyses of human hair for paleodiet.     

Seeing into hearts and minds: Part 2. ‘Big data’, algorithms,and computational counterinsurgency

In this second of his two‐part article, the author analyzes the rise of ‘predictive policing’ and its Pentagon connections, reviews two programmes, and poses these in the context of scientists' concerns over artificial intelligence and long‐term human survival.