封还词头与北宋的封驳制度

封还词头这一封驳方式发端于唐代,形成于北宋仁宗朝,主要由中书舍人职掌。北宋的封驳制度发展为以中书舍人封还词头为主、给事中封驳为辅的模式,是三省制转变为一省制过程中封驳制度的必然转变。中书舍人封还词头,对于修正人事决策有着十分积极的意义,相较于单一的给事中封驳,无疑也是制度上的进步。但对于封还词头的作用仍不可高估,因为这一行政程序并不能从根本上左右决策。     

北宋通进银台司在中枢决策中的封驳权

北宋元丰改制前,由于三省并不是实际意义上的宰相机构,所以自唐以来行使封驳权的门下省给事中已经没有封驳的职权。宋太宗淳化时期为了加强对政令决策的审覆,设立知给事中事,赋予封驳"未便"制敕的权力。之后,太宗又将知给事中事的封驳权划隶掌管国家政令传达的机构———通进银台司,强化了封驳权行使的力度,使通进银台司成为独立于二府的国家正式机构,在中枢政务决策与政令颁行中发挥了重要的作用,直至神宗元丰改制,作为整体的通进银台司方被罢废。     

从《武义南宋徐谓礼文书》看南宋时的给舍封驳——兼论录白告身第八道的复原

《武义南宋徐谓礼文书》证明了元丰改制时依据唐制所建立的人事除授中制授、敕授、奏授等三种告身制度的存在,以及尚书省以奏抄为文书主体的日常政务运作方式的确立。文章结合文献分析了徐谓礼两类告身的形成过程以及给事中、中书舍人在其中的角色及其作用,重新评估了南宋所谓给舍合一以及封驳权的行使问题,认为给、舍各自的职能及其封驳权力并不曾因为所谓的三省合一而发生实质性的改变,并不存在封驳职废或者职能互相侵夺的问题。徐谓礼文书并不支持诏敕等下行文书需要签"读"字的说法,但给事中署名行下的过程称作"书读","不书读"即构成封驳。文章最后在制度梳理的基础上讨论了徐谓礼文书中一则告身的复原问题。     

论唐代宦官使职制度与唐后期宦官专权关系

唐代宦官使职制度对唐代后期政局有着巨大的影响。唐代的宦官借助内诸司使体系中的关键性使职,即神策护军中尉和枢密使掌握了唐朝的军、政大权,并不断地对唐廷发起冲击。而宦官本身的权力则来自于皇权,实为皇权的一种变态。此外,高级宦官之间的权力沉浮与争斗也是唐代后期宦官专权现象中不可不察的因素。     

从政治体制角度看秦至清社会的皇权专制属性

在秦至清两千多年的中国帝制社会中,无论是以三公九卿和三省六部为基本体制的中央官僚制度,还是以皇权为中枢的郡县官僚制度,都是皇权的派生物,其职能都在于保障皇权控制社会的绝对性。官僚体制运作中的宰相制度、封驳制度、谏官制度等等,在制度设计上有着某种合理性成分,但这些制度设计的主旨都在于保障皇权体制的正常运转,而不是皇权的对立因素,中国历史上不存在任何限制皇帝权力的制度化规定。判断秦至清中国社会的皇权专制主义属性,可以得到历史论据的坚实支撑。     

明中后期政局的边际效用——以六科给事中为切入点

明代六科制度赋予了给事中很多权力,六科给事中位卑权尊,进入明代中后期以后,六科给事中选拔、升迁、行政效能、品德操守都发生了很大的变化,随着皇权(固定要素)对六科给事中的猜忌压制,内阁(固定要素)与六科给事中的反复较量,六科给事中(可变量因素)势力开始膨胀,成为明末各党派首领,导致明中后期政局的边际效用逐步递减,运转失灵。     

论乾隆秘密建储

秘密建储是清朝独具特色的一项重要政治制度,肇始于康熙末年而确立于乾隆朝,并为此后各朝皇帝所遵行。这项制度对实现最高权力的顺利交接,加强皇权和巩固清朝统治都发挥了重要的作用。对于康雍之际秘     

二十世纪以来海内外宋代宦官研究综述

宦官是中国皇权政治的重要组成部分之一,历来受研究者重视。中国历史上的汉、唐、明三代,宦官广泛参政,他们在维护皇权的同时,对国家权力的正常运转也产生了诸多负面影响。相较于以上三代,宋代宦官除了童贯、梁师成之外,大多隐而不显。     

辛酉政变与正统皇权思想--慈禧政变成功原因再探讨

1861年8月,咸丰帝弥留之际的"后事"安排,是一种意在调适权力平衡但又必然引起权力争夺的行政措施.上谕"铃印"的规定,从制度上确保了皇权不致旁落,排除了肃顺等人挟制天子的可能,但同时也为慈禧掌握清廷最高权力提供了可能和保证.慈禧与肃顺等人在慈禧的太后封号、有无干预朝政权、是否垂帘听政、辛酉政变等问题上较量的胜利,在相当大程度上皆依恃皇权代表的有利地位.当时弥漫于朝野上下的正统皇权主义思想,使许多文武大臣及封建士大夫对肃顺等人赞襄政务、辅弼幼帝的合法性与可靠性表示出普遍的怀疑.这种正统皇权主义思想才是慈禧太后发动政变成功的决定性深层次原因.它不仅影响着当时的人们,甚至影响着当代的某些史学工作者.     

秦至清皇权专制社会说的法制史论证

秦至清帝制时代法律的本质特征,是帝王们口含天宪,朕即法律,诏书、敕令、谕旨、御笔手诏,皇帝任何形式的言语、思想表述,都是法律或法律依据。帝王不仅具有立法的专断性权力,而且具有随时随意立法的便宜。专制帝王是唯一的立法主体,而法律的适用主体则仅仅是臣民,不存在针对天子、帝王犯罪的任何立法,皇帝本人超然于法律之上,享受法权的绝对独裁。立法的核心原则在于维护皇权的尊严,确保皇权对社会的全方位控制,强化帝王的绝对权力。在司法实践中,皇帝直接涉入司法,控制司法最终审判权;在地方政府层面的制度设计中,始终实行政权与司法权的统一,以保证皇权对司法权的绝对控制。帝王对立法权与司法权的独断,从一个方面证明了秦至清社会的皇权专制性质。     

Gas breakthrough pressure for hydrocarbon reservoir seal rocks: implications for the security of long-term CO2 storage in the Weyburn field

This paper reports a laboratory study of the gas breakthrough pressure for different gas/liquid systems in the Mississippian‐age Midale Evaporite. This low‐permeability rock formation is the seal rock for the Weyburn Field in southeastern Saskatchewan, Canada, where CO₂ is being injected into an oil reservoir for enhanced recovery and CO₂ storage. A technique for experimentally determining CO₂ breakthrough pressure at reservoir conditions is presented. Breakthrough pressures for N₂, CO₂ and CH₄ were measured with the selected seal‐rock samples. The maximum breakthrough pressure is over 30 MPa for N₂ and approximately 21 MPa for CO₂. The experimental results demonstrate that the Weyburn Midale Evaporite seal rock is of high sealing quality. Therefore, the Weyburn reservoir and Midale Beds can be used as a CO₂ storage site after abandonment. The measured results also show that the breakthrough pressure of a seal rock for a gas is nearly proportional to the interfacial tension of the gas/brine system. The breakthrough pressure of a CO₂/brine system is significantly reduced compared with that of a CH₄/brine system because of the much lower interfacial tension of the former. This implies that a seal rock that seals the original gas in a gas reservoir or an oil reservoir with a gas cap may not be tight enough to seal the injected CO₂ if the pressure during or after CO₂ injection is the same or higher than the original reservoir pressure. Therefore, reevaluation of the breakthrough pressure of seal rocks for a given reservoir is necessary and of highest priority once it is chosen as a CO₂ storage site.     

徐州出土"祕府"封泥的封缄方法浅析

1995年 ,在徐州市东郊东甸子西汉一号墓中出土一枚封泥 ,上有阳文隶书“府”。本文对这枚封泥的封缄方法及相关问题进行了研究。     

Gas breakthrough experiments on fine-grained sedimentary rocks

The capillary sealing efficiency of fine‐grained sedimentary rocks has been investigated by gas breakthrough experiments on fully water saturated claystones and siltstones (Boom Clay from Belgium, Opalinus Clay from Switzerland and Tertiary mudstone from offshore Norway) of different lithological compositions. Sand contents of the samples were consistently below 12%, major clay minerals were illite and smectite. Porosities determined by mercury injection lay between 10 and 30% while specific surface areas determined by nitrogen adsorption (BET method) ranged from 20 to 48 m² g ^{? 1}. Total organic carbon contents were below 2%. Prior to the gas breakthrough experiments the absolute (single phase) permeability (k_abs) of the samples was determined by steady state flow tests with water or NaCl brine. The k_abs values ranged between 3 and 550 nDarcy (3 × 10^?21 and 5.5 × 10^?19 m²). The maximum effective permeability to the gas‐phase (k_eff) measured after gas breakthrough on initially water‐saturated samples extended from 0.01 nDarcy (1 × 10^?23 m²) up to 1100 nDarcy (1.1 × 10^?18 m²). The residual differential pressures after re‐imbibition of the water phase, referred to as the ‘minimum capillary displacement pressures’ (P_d), ranged from 0.06 to 6.7 MPa. During the re‐imbibition process the effective permeability to the gas phase decreases with decreasing differential pressure. The recorded permeability/pressure data were used to derive the pore size distribution (mostly between 8 and 60 nm) and the transport porosity of the conducting pore system (10^‐5–10^‐2%). Correlations could be established between (i) absolute permeability coefficients and the maximum effective permeability coefficients and (ii) effective or absolute permeability coefficients and capillary sealing efficiency. No correlation was found between the capillary displacement pressures determined from gas breakthrough experiments and those derived theoretically by mercury injection.     

Molecular transport of methane, ethane and nitrogen and the influence of diffusion on the chemical and isotopic composition of natural gas accumulations

Laboratory experiments have been performed to determine diffusion coefficients of natural gas components (methane, ethane and nitrogen) and isotope fractionation effects under simulated in situ pressure (up to 45 MPa effective stress) and temperature conditions (50–200°C) in water‐saturated pelitic and coarse‐grained rocks. Effective diffusion coefficients of molecular nitrogen (0.39 × 10^?11 to 21.6 × 10^?11 m² sec^?1 at 90°C) are higher than those for methane (0.18 × 10^?11 to 18.2 × 10^?11 m² sec^?1 at 90°C). Diffusive flux rates expressed in mass units are generally higher for N₂ than for CH₄. Both methane and (to a lesser extent) nitrogen diffusion coefficients decrease with increasing total organic carbon (TOC) content of the rock samples because of sorption processes on the organic matter. This effect decreases with increasing temperature. Effective diffusion coefficients increase upon a temperature increase from 50 to 200°C by a factor of four. Effective diffusion coefficients and steady‐state diffusive flux decrease with effective stress. Stationary diffusive fluxes drop by 50–70% for methane and 45–62% for nitrogen while effective diffusion coefficients are reduced by 38% (CH₄) and 32–48% (N₂), respectively. Isotope fractionation coefficients of diffusive transport are higher for methane (?1.56 and ?2.77‰) than for ethane (?0.84 and ?1.62‰). Application of the experimental results to geological systems show that diffusive transport has only a low transport efficiency. Significant depletion of natural gas reservoirs by molecular diffusion is only expected in cases of very poor caprock qualities (in terms of thickness and/or porosity) and over extended periods of geological time. Under these circumstances, the chemical and isotopic composition of a gas reservoir will change and maturity estimates based on these parameters may be deceptive. To account for these potential effects, nomograms have been developed to estimate diffusive losses and apply maturity corrections.     

A new view of some familiar Indian rainfalls

PHYSICAL

The Geology of East Fife. By I. H. Forsyth and J. I. Chisholm, etc. 25 × 16, ×+284 pp. 31 figures, 8 plates, 10 tables, references, 2 appendices and index. H.M. Stationery Office, 1977. £10.00.

Geology and Scenery in Scotland. By J. B. Whittow. 20×13, 362 pp. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1977. £1.95.

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

Domesday: England. By H. C. Darby. 24 × 16, xiv+416 pp., frontispiece, 111 figures, 74 appendices, index. Cambridge University Press, 1977. £20.

Scottish Place Names. By W. F. H. Nicolaisen. 22 × 14½, xxviii+210 pp., 21 maps, bibliography. Batsford, London, 1976. £4.95.

Scottish Country Life. By Alexander Fenton. 22½× 15, 255 pp., illustrations, bibliography, index. John Donald, Edinburgh, 1976. £6.50.

The Development of the Irish Town. Ed. R. A. Butlin. 22½×14, 144 pp. Croom Helm, London, 1977. £6.95.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Patterns in Human Geography. By D. M. Smith. 20 × 13, 373 pp., numerous figures, index. Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1977. £2.00 (paper).

Human Geography: A Welfare Approach. By D. M. Smith. 23½ × 15½, 402 pp., numerous figures, bibliography. Edward Arnold, London, 1977. £4.50 (paper).

Geography, Culture and Habitat: Selected Essays (1925‐1975) of E. G. Bowen. Selected and introduced by Harold Carter and Wayne K. D. Davies. 22½× 14½, xxxiii and 275 pp. Gomer Press, 1976. £6.00.

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

Agrarian Change in the Scottish Highlands. By J. Bryden and G. Houston. Glasgow Social and Economic Reserach Studies 4. 24 × 16, 152 pp., maps, bibliography, index. Martin Robertson, HIDB, London, 1976. £7.50.

The Arctic Circle. Ed. William C. Wonders. 23×15, 143 pp., 14 maps, references. Longman/Don Mills, Ontario, 1976. $6.95, paper $3.95.

Argyll: The Enduring Heartlands. By Marion Campbell, with a Foreword by the Duke of Argyll. 22 × 14, 267 pp., 20 illustrations, bibliography, index. Turnstone Press, London, 1977. £4.95.

TECHNIQUES

Maps and Statistics. By Peter Lewis. 24×16, 318 pp., 161 figures, Exercise answers, bibliography, index. Methuen, Andover, 1977. £9.50, paper £5.95.

EDUCATIONAL

Geography and the Integrated Curriculum. Edited by Michael Williams. 21 X14, xiii+227 pp. Heineman Educational Books, 1976. £2‐25 (paper).

Evaluating the Geography Curriculum. By W. E. Marsden. 22×13, 312 pp. Oliver and Boyd, 1976. £3.50 (paper).

Man and his World. By W. G. Moore. 24½ × 19, 141 pp. Hulton, Amersham, 1976. £1.95.

Landforms and Landscapes. By F. C. Evans. 18 × 25, 65 pp. Oliver &; Boyd, Edinburgh, 1975. £1.10.     

Physical properties of carbonate fault rocks,fucino basin (Central Italy): implications for fault seal in platform carbonates

We documented the porosity, permeability, pore geometry, pore type, textural anisotropy, and capillary pressure of carbonate rock samples collected along basin‐bounding normal faults in central Italy. The study samples consist of one Mesozoic platform carbonate host rock with low porosity and permeability, four fractured host rocks of the damage zones, and four fault rocks of the fault cores. The four fractured samples have high secondary porosity, due to elongated, connected, soft pores that provide fluid pathways in the damage zone. We modeled this zone as an elastic cracked medium, and used the Budiansky–O'Connell correlation to compute its permeability from the measured elastic moduli. This correlation can be applied only to fractured rocks with large secondary porosity and high‐aspect ratio pores. The four fault rock samples are made up of survivor clasts embedded in fine carbonate matrices and cements with sub‐spherical, stiff pores. The low porosity and permeability of these rocks, and their high values of capillary pressure, are consistent with the fault core sealing as much as 77 and 140 m of gas and oil columns, respectively. We modeled the fault core as a granular medium, and used the Kozeny–Carmen correlation, assigning the value of 5 to the Kozeny constant, to compute its permeability from the measured porosities and pore radii. The permeability structure of the normal faults is composed of two main units with unique hydraulic characteristics: a granular fault core that acts as a seal to cross‐fault fluid flow, and an elastic cracked damage zone that surrounds the core and forms a conduit for fluid flow. Transient pathways for along‐fault fluid flow may form in the fault core during seismic faulting due to the formation of opening‐mode fractures within the cemented fault rocks.     

古代绢画补配修复工具研制的探讨

针对在古代绢画补配修复中,面对古今材质与装裱要求不一、病害种类不同的情况,为将现代的绢绫线与文物的经纬线更好地匹配,研制了一种绢绫刮口刀。此刀由八个点形成的一条线或一个面作为刮口工作的状态,可以避免绢画修复中常用工具——马蹄刀、美工刀以点为工作面的刃口所产生的倾斜角度力点小且刀刃的点难以控制易伤及画心等缺点。虽然研制的绢绫刮口刀在修复明代绢本水陆画《七宿星君水陆道场图轴》的补绢刮口步骤中发挥了很好的作用,但作为非物质文化遗产的苏裱技艺如何科学化,还需不断地探讨。     

我国会展旅游发展中的问题与对策探析

我国会辰旅游的发展对我国的社会、经济、文化的大发展起到了很大的推动作用,但总的来说,我国会展旅游发展水平仍然很低,发展中存在着一些问题。本文针对会展旅游发展中的司题,对如何使我国会展旅游走上可持续发展的轨道作了初步探讨。     

流散欧美的良渚古玉

20世纪初,中国古物大量流散欧美,价格高、易携带的古玉尤为大宗。笔者于1979年-1980年曾旅行探访20余所博物馆,在各馆库房仔细研究玉器。到1990年代,再多次前往重要的馆藏从事专题研究。"良渚玉器上的刻画符号"就是当时我密切关注的专题之一。在本篇中,笔者除回顾百余年流散欧美的良渚古玉收藏及出版情况,介绍四件圆周有刻符的良渚玉璧外,也略论约16至20世纪仿赝良渚古玉的特征。