William Penn et l’Abbé de Saint-Pierre: Le chaînon manquant

The two most famous peace projects published at the time of Louis XIV are William Penn’sEssay towards the present and future peace of Europe and Castel de Saint-Pierre’sProjet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe, which came out in English in 1693, and that of the abbé de Saint-Pierre, which was published in its completed form in several volumes dating from 1713 to 1716. A French translation of Penn’s book was issued in 1697 at the latest and was privately distributed. Our claim is that Saint-Pierre was in some way involved in that translation and that he was indebted to Penn for many of his ideas.     

De la controverse aux règles de la méthode de discussion : La métamorphose Pascalienne de la dispute sur le vide

Pascal’s Expériences nouvelles touchant le vide (1647) outlines a physical demonstration that aims to put to an end controversies between plenists and vacuists. The traditional form of the dispute with which Pascal wanted to break, however, finds itself reactivated by Étienne Noël, who takes up again the plenist objections which the Expériences nouvelles only consider as possible the better to refute them. Pascal’s letters Au très révérend père Noël and À Monsieur Le Pailleur on the contrary permit one to define a field of disputation different from the one which Noël perpetuates. Pascal subordinates the dispute to the recognition of common epistemological principles: the antithetical discussion about the vacuum should be governed by methodological criteria accepted by all. In contrast with the model of the learned dispute, Pascal thus defines a radically new model: the scientific dispute.     

Density profiles of sporadic E-layers containing two metal ion species

Ionospheric plasma containing two types of metal ions is investigated under the action of the wind shear mechanism or, alternatively, an electric field causing convergent vertical plasma flow. It is shown that the different ion species are separately collected into thin sheets with a height difference ranging from some hundreds of meters to several kilometers. Theoretical density profiles for Mg⁺ and Fe⁺ ions are calculated assuming a screw-like wind structure or a strong auroral electric field. It is found that the two ion layers usually partially merge forming a single E_s-layer. If the height difference of the ion sheets is not too great as compared to their thicknesses, the E_s-profile is single peaked and approximately symmetric. With increasing layer separation the two sheets will gradually be discerned, until finally a double peaked profile is created. It is suggested that some of the observed complexities in E_s-profiles are caused by the presence of more than one monoatomic ion species.     

Simulations of the behaviour of the polar thermosphere and ionosphere for northward IMF

The dynamics and structure of the polar thermosphere and ionosphere within the polar regions are strongly influenced by the magnetospheric electric field. The convection of ionospheric plasma imposed by this electric field generates a large-scale thermospheric circulation which tends to follow the pattern of the ionospheric circulation itself. The magnetospheric electric field pattern is strongly influenced by the magnitude and direction of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), and by the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. Previous numerical simulations of the thermospheric response to magnetospheric activity have used available models of auroral precipitation and magnetospheric electric fields appropriate for a southward-directed IMF. In this study, the UCL/Sheffield coupled thermosphere/ionosphere model has been used, including convection electric field models for a northward IMF configuration. During periods of persistent strong northward IMF B_z, regions of sunward thermospheric winds (up to 200 m s⁻¹) may occur deep within the polar cap, reversing the generally anti-sunward polar cap winds driven by low-latitude solar EUV heating and enhanced by geomagnetic forcing under all conditions of southward IMF B_z. The development of sunward polar cap winds requires persistent northward IMF and enhanced solar wind dynamic pressure for at least 2–4 h, and the magnitude of the northward IMF component should exceed approximately 5 nT. Sunward winds will occur preferentially on the dawn (dusk) side of the polar cap for IMF B_y negative (positive) in the northern hemisphere (reverse in the southern hemisphere). The magnitude of sunward polar cap winds will be significantly modulated by UT and season, reflecting E-and F-region plasma densities. For example, in northern mid-winter, sunward polar cap winds will tend to be a factor of two stronger around 1800 UT, when the geomagnetic polar cusp is sunlit, then at 0600 UT, when the entire polar cap is in darkness.     

Relativités et puissances spectrales chez Gaston Bachelard

La Valeur inductive de la relativité is undoubtedly the least known «philosophical» work of Gaston Bachelard. Before an almost total silence, with the absence of readings, the replies are only «first type» interpretations supported by a certain discursive hearsay, but which have the authority of pseudo-standards. The Bachelardian positions are here confronted byLa Déduction relativiste of Émile Meyerson. The weight of the analysis will essentially rest upon a display of the Bachelardian device ofinduction and ofconstruction. The «inductive» preparation must be thought out on the electromagnetic model and the «constructivist» position is always linked to the effort of synthesis. In short, it is a veritablemeta-physics which seemingly must generate this «thought of the sciences».     

The extinct large cranes of the North-West palaearctic

Bones of a large crane, comparable in size with the Sarus Crane, Grus antigone, have been found in the Late Pleistocene of Britain and France, neolithic of Germany, and Bronze and Iron Age sites in Britain. They occur together with bones of the Common Crane, G. grus. On zoogeographical grounds these are unlikely to be referable to G. antigone, and the name G. primigenia Milne-Edwards 1896 is available for the species.G. melitensis, a crane of similar large size from the Eemian interglacial of Malta differs in having a narrower tendinal bridge on the distal tibiotarsus, and a small slender coracoid that suggests that the powers of flight may have been reduced. On present evidence it has no link with the previous species other than that of size.     

Size differences between limb bones of recent and subfossil mute swans Cygnus olor

Limb bones of Mute Swan Cygnus olor from neolithic to bronze age Cambridgeshire peat were larger than those of a recent sample when compared biometrically. The decrease in overall size that this may indicate could be part of an evolutionary trend.     

Analysis of Es traces from a calibrated oblique ionosonde

An analysis is performed on ionosonde data produced during five years of operation of an oblique sounder transmitting on a path from Darwin (12.4°S, 130.9°E) to Alice Springs (23.5°S, 133.7°E). It is found that the occurrence of sporadic-E (E_s) shows a relatively mild diurnal dependence, with a significant amount of E_s occurring in the early evening before midnight. It appears that, on average, nighttime E_s produces weaker reflections than daytime E_s.The power of the E_s reflections as a function of frequency is collated for all ionograms. The resulting power curve exhibits total and partial reflection sections. In trying to reproduce the partial reflection section of the curve it is shown that a layer without horizontal structure is required to be only 100 m thick. A second model involving a layer consisting of horizontally localised clouds of scatterers, with scale sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 metres, reproduces the partial reflection section of the curve quite well. The size, intensity and distribution of the clouds affects the curve shape on individual ionograms, resulting in the suggestion that nighttime layers are more irregular than daytime layers.     

Jeux D’échelles. Une Histoire Internationale

The book Jeux d’échelles. La microanalyse à l’expérience, which appeard in 1996 under the direction of Jacques Revel, was translated in Italy in 2006 by the Viella editions under the title Giochi di scala. La microstoria alla prova dell’esperienza. This occasion seemed propicious for a historiographic and epistemological return to the microhistorical experience between France and Italy. It had to do with cross reperencing the reflections of a french historian and those of an italian philosopher to seek to place in evidence, from a distance, the theoretical presuppositions of microhistory, and to measure the displacements undergone.     

Large simultaneous disturbances (LSDs) in the Antarctic ionosphere

A high frequency radio Doppler experiment was deployed in the Antarctic Peninsula region, centred on Argentine Islands (65°15′S, 64°16′W; L = 2.3), to investigate the morphology and sources of ionospheric disturbances. The experiment consisted of a three-transmitter dual frequency network which permits horizontal and vertical propagation velocities to be estimated over a north-south baseline of 200 km and an east-west baseline of 100 km.A new class of ionospheric disturbance has been observed, in the period range 10 min−1 h. These disturbances are characterised by unusually good correlation between perturbations on all available Doppler signals, but are apparently non—propagating and occur simultaneously at each reflection point. Several of these events display large (2 Hz at about 5 MHz transmitted frequency) Doppler shifts, thus we have labelled them Large Simultaneous Disturbances (LSD_s).Criteria for identification of LSD_s are established and the analysis of one event is described in detail. The occurrence statistics of the LSD_s are presented, including their seasonal and diurnal distributions.There is no clear general relationship between LSD_s and local geomagnetic field perturbations. However, examination of the magnetic indices AE and I_RC indicates that there is a loose association between the occurrence and amplitude of LSD_s and magnetic activity.Several possible mechanisms for the generation of LSD_s at middle latitudes are reviewed. The most likely explanation is that high latitude electric fields penetrate to magnetic middle latitudes and drive the ionospheric plasma via the E × B drift.     

HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE TO REFORESTATION IN THE GANARASKA RIVER BASIN, SOUTHERN ONTARIO

Headwater slopes of the Ganaraska River basin in southern Ontario were reforested after World War II in an effort to reduce soil erosion and downstream flooding. Hydrological responses to this land use change are examined. Between 1945 and 1990 forest cover in Ganaraska Forest increased from 3.3 to 8.9% of the basin area. Over this period annual runoff decreased by 100 mm, and runoff ratios were reduced. These hydrological changes exceed those predicted from empirical relationships between runoff and forest cover, and likely reflect a combination of increased interception and evapotranspiration, water storage in headwater aquifers, and deep groundwater losses. Reforestation was also associated with significant decreases in high flows and increases in annual minimum daily flows. Annual maximum daily mean specific discharges decreased from 0.36 to 0.11 m³ s^-1 km^-2 (±0.0009 m³ s^-1 km^-2) between 1946 and 1962, while annual maximum daily mean specific discharges decreased from 0.0037 to 0.0062 m3 s-1 km^-2 (±0.10 m³ s^-1 km^-2) between 1957 and 1990, as estimated from bestfit regression relationships. The response of runoff ratios and peak flows to increased forest cover was more rapid than that of minimum daily flows. Results suggest that hydrological responses to relatively minor modifications of forest cover can be detected, depending on location of land use change within the basin. Les pentes des sources du bassin de la Rivère Ganaraska dans le Sud de I'Ontario ont été reboisées après la deuxième guerre mondiale pour diminuer l'érosion du sol et les inondations en aval. Les réponses hydrologiques au changement dans l'utilisation du sol sont examinées. Entre 1945 et 1990, la couverture de la forêt de Ganaraska s'est accrue de 3,3 à 8,9% par rapport à la superficie du bassin. Durant cette période, le ruissellement annuel a diminué de 100 mm et les proportions de ruissellement furent réduites. Ces changements hydrologiques dapassent ceux prédits par les relations empiriques entre les débits et la couverture forestère et ils reflètent probablement les effets combinés de l'augmentation d'interception et évapotranspiration, de I'entreposage d'eau dans les nappes aquifères en amont bassin et de pertes importantes d'eaux des sources. Le reboisement éait aussi associéà une diminution considérable des hauts deébits et à une augmentation des débits minimum journaliers annuels. Le maximum annuel des deébits spécifiques journaliers moyens a diminué de 0,36 à 0,11 m³ s^-1 km^-2 (±0,10 m³ s^-1 km^-2) entre 1946 et 1962 pendant que le minimum annuel des deébits spécifiques journaliers moyens a augmenté de 0,0037 à 0,0062 m³ s^-1 km^-2 (±0,0009 m³ s^- km^-2) entre 1957 et 1990, tel qu'estiméà partir d'équations de régression. La réponse des proportions de ruissellements et des écoulements de points a l'augmentation de la couverture forestière était plus rapide que celle des débits minimum journaliers. Ces résultats laissent entendre que les réponses hydrologiques suite à des modifications mineures peuvent être dètectées selon l'emplacement de ces changements à l'intérieur du bassin.     

On the role of auroral electric fields in the formation of low altitude sporadic-E and sudden sodium layers

The characteristics of metallic and molecular ion sporadic-E (E_s) layers, formed by the action of strong electric fields at auroral latitudes, are examined using computer simulations. It is found that, for electric fields directed between northward and westward (northern hemisphere), thin metallic ion layers (<2 km thick) can be formed above about 105 km altitude. For electric fields directed from westward, through southward, to south-eastward, slightly thicker (4–6 km thick) metallic ion layers can form between 90 and 105 km altitudes. Thin layers of molecular ions can be formed by electric fields directed between north and west if the ion density is low. Examples of E_s layers observed by the EISCAT radar, together with simultaneous observations of electric fields and ion drifts are presented which show good agreement with the simulations. The relationship between the lower-altitude E_s layers and sudden sodium layers (SSLs) is discussed leading to an explanation of some of the characteristics of SSLs at high latitude. A possible involvement of smoke particles in the formation of both E_s layers and SSLs is proposed.     

L’Histoire, la Fable et le Fabuleux Analyse de la notion de fabuleux

Paul Hazard has clearly shown the concomitance ofThe Crisis of the European consciousness in various domains, under diverse aspects and diverse interrogations. This crisis, these new issues which arise concern as well the concept of temporality which was then in vogue. This article seeks to study its emergence through a specific question which concerns the status and the significance to be given fables and myths which we have inherited from Antiquity. Thanks to the studies by abbé Anselme, Fontenelle, Nicolas Fréret, the chevalier de La Barre and Lévesque de Burigny of the notion of the marvelous, as found in fables, we can better grasp the development of an historical concept.     

LANDSCAPE CHANGE IN THE LAKE SIMCOE-COUCHICHING BASIN, 1800–1983

Census data and Trimble's erosive land use (ELU) index are used to document changes in agricultural land use and potential erosion in the Lake Simcoe—Couchiching Basin during the past two centuries. The ELU index is represented by the cover-management factor in the universal soil loss equation and takes values between 0 (no erosion) and 1.0 (accelerated erosion). Basin-wide farmland ELU scores increased prior to 1901 due to intensification of agriculture, fell between 1911 and 1961 as yields and areas under grass increased, and then increased again from 1961 onward due to expansion in corn hectarage. The 0.152 index computed in 1981 is almost as large as the largest index (0.154)computed in 1891 and illustrates the huge environmental changes in the basin since early settlement without the beginnings of a permanent and more viable system of land use. Les changements d'utilisation des sols survenus au cours des deux derniers siècles dans le bassin du Lac Simco-Couchiching de même que I'érodibilité de ces sols, font I'objet d'une évaluation à I'aide des données de re-censements et de I'indice d'érosion particulier aux dif-férentes utilisation du sol (indice de Trimble). Le facteur de gestion de la couverture dans l'équation universelle de la partie de sol figure dans cet indice dont la valeur se range entre 0 (absence d'érosion) et 1.0 (érosion en accélération). Les scores pour les terres agricoles à I'éhelle du bassin ont augmenté avant 1901 quand l'agriculture s'est intensifiée, puis ont chuté entre 1911 et 1961 à mesure que les rendements et les superficies herbacées augmentaient, et enfin ont de nouveau re-monté depuis 1961 à la suite de l'expansion des superficies plantées en maïs. L'indice obtenu pour 1981 (0.1521 est presque aussi élevé que I'indice le plus fort atteinten 1891 (0.154). ll démontre les changements considérables survenus dans I'environnement du bassin depuis le tout début de son peuplement, alors qu'aucun système d'utilisation des sols permanent et plus viable n'a encore pu èmerger.     

A further consideration of neolithic dogs with special reference to a skeleton from Grime's Graves (Norfolk), England

The complete skull and skeleton of a dog were recently excavated from the neolithic flint mines at Grime's Graves in Norfolk. As very few complete skeletons of dogs have been found from neolithic contexts in Britain a detailed metrical comparison was made between the Grime's Graves specimen and dog skeletons of comparable antiquity and completeness from Easton Down and Windmill Hill in Wiltshire.Implicit in the study of the dog from Grime's Graves was the need to date it precisely. As the skeleton could not be sacrificed for radiocarbon dating, closely associated antlers of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) were used for this purpose. The date of the Grime's Graves dog is compared with the dates for other dog remains from recently excavated neolithic sites in the British Isles.     

Radiocarbon chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta

Critical evaluation, tree-ring calibration, and statistical analysis of 95 radiocarbon dates from neolithic and predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta provide the following average age estimates in calendrical years BC. Early Fayum Neolithicca 5200 to 4500 BC Early Merimda Neolithicca 4800 BC Late Merimda Neolithic ?4400 BC Late Fayum Neolithicca 4000 BC Late Badarian? (Hemamieh)ca 4400/4000 BC Early Nagada (Nagada)ca 3750 BC Hierakonpolis (Locs 11 & 29)ca 3550 BC Late Nagada (South Town)ca 3450 BC Other sites or periods are not adequately dated. In addition, further dates are needed to bolster thistentative framework.     

Mobilité de la population et pauvreté dans une vicomté normande de la fin du Moyen-Age

Important in number and spread very evenly throughout the fifteenth century, the Norman rolls of the monnéage are a very important source for statistical study of the population of Normandy. The information about names they provide allows one to grasp the importance of mobility of population in urban and rural areas. Information about the different categories of exempted persons permits a study of the problem of poverty. The region under scrutiny in this article is the vicomté or vice-county of Bayeux and the city of Caen. Documents concerning this region reveal a highly mobile population, a fact which war by itself cannot explain. The highest rates of mobility are to be found among the populations of the different parishes of Bayeux and Caen. As one might expect, the poor are amongst the most mobile of all. Moreover, the persistence of poverty throughout the fifteenth century, as seen in the rolls of the monnéage, raises the problem of the continued stagnation of this part Normandy.     

The role of electric field and neutral wind direction in the formation of sporadic E-layers

The effect of an electric field and a homogeneous neutral wind on the vertical ion motion in the ionospheric E-region is investigated. An electric field pointing, in the northern hemisphere, in the quadrant between geomagnetic north and west is found to he capable of driving plasma towards a certain height from both above and below. A homogeneous neutral wind blowing in a direction between east and north has a similar effect. Unlike in the wind shear model, the resulting plasma sheet may be created within a quite limited height interval only. It seems possible that the midnight occurrence maximum of mid-latitude type E_s-layers, observed at high latitudes, is caused by electric fields in the Harang discontinuity region. It is also suggested that the flat type E_s-layers often observed before a substorm onset are caused by electric fields. The wind shear theory is investigated using a screw-like neutral wind profile. The effects of right- and left-handed wind screws are compared and rules are derived which define the conditions leading to convergent and divergent nulls in the vertical ion velocity. In the northern hemisphere, a right-handed screw is found to be more effective than a left-handed one with equal pitch in compressing plasma into thin sheets.     

Neolithic dogs: A reappraisal based on evidence from the remains of a large canid deposited in a ritual feature

A canid skull and mandible, dated to the late neolithic, produced a series of measurements which indicate an animal significantly larger than any dog recovered from this period. The skull showed evidence of healed trauma with associated asymmetry. Metrical and morphological criteria have been applied to identify the remains as those of wolf Canis lupus, and the results of these tests are inconclusive. The possibility that the remains are of a large dog, Canis familiaris, is discussed, together with the implications that this may have for the archaeological consideration of this species.