Taphonomy and zooarchaeology of the Upper Palaeolithic cave of Dzudzuana,Republic of Georgia

We present the results of a detailed taphonomic and zooarchaeological study of the faunal remains from the Upper Palaeolithic layers of Dzudzuana Cave, Republic of Georgia. This study presents the first carefully analysed Upper Palaeolithic faunal assemblage from the southern Caucasus and thus serves as a significant point of reference for inter‐regional studies of Upper Palaeolithic subsistence in Eurasia. A series of intra‐site taphonomic comparisons are employed to reconstruct the depositional history of the bone assemblages within the different occupational phases at the site and to investigate subsistence, meat procurement and bone‐processing strategies. Caucasian tur (Capra caucasica), aurochs (Bos primigenius) and steppe bison (Bison priscus) were the major prey species throughout the Upper Palaeolithic. Their frequencies do not change significantly over time, and nor does bone preservation vary by layer. The assemblage is characterised by significant density‐mediated biases, caused by both human bone‐processing behaviours and in situ post‐burial bone attrition. Bone marrow extraction produced large numbers of unidentified bone fragments, many exhibiting green bone fractures. The density and size of bone assemblages and the extent of fragmentation indicate that Dzudzuana Cave was repeatedly occupied by Upper Palaeolithic foragers over many years. Skeletal part representation and butchery marks from all stages of carcass processing suggest that prey occasionally underwent field butchery. Intra‐site taphonomic comparisons highlight uniform patterns of cultural and economic behaviours related to food procurement and processing strategies. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sexual dimorphism in limb bones of ibex (Capra ibex L.): mixture analysis applied to modern and fossil data

Estimating sex ratios of fossil bone assemblages is an important step in the determination of demographic profiles, which are essential for understanding the palaeobiology and palaeoethology of any particular species, as well as its exploitation patterns by humans. This is especially true for ibex (Capra ibex), which was a main source of food for hominids during Pleistocene times. Classical methods for determining sexual dimorphism and sex ratio, such as analyses using uni‐ and bivariate plots, are based on an arbitrary fixing of limits between sexes. Here we use a more robust statistical method termed mixture analysis (MA) to determine the sex of postcranial remains (long bones, metapodials and tarsals) from ibex. For the first time, we apply MA to both a modern and a fossil sample of one species, by using metric data taken from (i) a collection of present‐day ibex skeletons and (ii) a Palaeolithic sample of the same species. Our results clearly show that the forelimb (humerus and radius) is more dimorphic than the hindlimb (femur and tibia) and is therefore better suited for sexing ibex. It also appears that metapodials should be used carefully for estimating sex ratios. On the basis of these results, we propose a classification of bone measurements that are more or less reliable for sexing ibex. The results of MA applied to the ibex fossil bones from the Upper Palaeolithic site of the Observatoire (Monaco) lead us to the conclusion that this assemblage consists of a majority of males. The quantitative estimations calculated by the MA make it possible to compare the size of Pleistocene and modern ibex for the whole set of variables used in this study. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A reconsideration of the date of the Kanam jaw

In March 1932, during Dr L. S. B. Leakey's expedition to the southern shore of the Kavirondo Gulf of Victoria Nyanza, part of a fossil human mandible was discovered by Juma Gitau in an erosion gully in the early Pleistocene Kanam Beds at Kanam West. Since the Kanam jaw showed a well-defined chin, generally regarded as signifying Homo sapiens, it was for long placed in a “suspense account” and repeatedly doubts have been expressed as to whether it really did come out of the Kanam Beds.The composition of the jaw was tested at a number of points, both the bone (corpus mandibulae) and the dentine of the teeth and comparison made with analyses of mammal bones and teeth from the Kanam Beds at Kanam West. For convenience the results may be summarized as follows.     

The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) as an Accumulator of Bones in Cave‐like Environments

Identifying the behavioural patterns of bone collecting animals is a crucial aspect of taphonomic studies. Although many studies have established criteria for identifying animal‐collected or animal‐modified bones, very few papers describe the distinguishing features of fox‐made bone assemblages. The bone assemblage collected in an inactive underground stone mine in Potok‐Senderki (Poland) is diagnostic of a red fox (Vulpes vulpes) den. This site provides an ideal opportunity to develop an understanding of the bone collecting behaviour of red foxes in cave‐like environments. This study showed that bones collected by red foxes are concentrated in clusters. The bones represent a broad spectrum of local fox prey species, with most bones showing the marks of gnawing. Each cluster may contain from <10 to >100 bones. Furthermore, the long axes of the bones in clusters frequently show specific orientation. The analysis of bones at this site might make an important contribution towards the establishment of baseline criteria for the identification and evaluation of fox‐accumulated bone assemblages. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

First large‐scale provenance study of pigments reveals new complex behavioural patterns during the Upper Palaeolithic of south‐western Germany

The use of red iron‐based earth pigments, or ochre, is a key component of early symbolic behaviours for anatomically modern humans and possibly Neanderthals. We present the first ochre provenance study in Central Europe showing long‐term selection strategies by inhabitants of cave sites in south‐western Germany during the Upper Palaeolithic (43–14.5 ka). Ochre artefacts from Hohle Fels, Geißenklösterle and Vogelherd, and local and extra‐local sources, were investigated using neutron activation analysis (NAA), X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that local ochre sources were continuously and systematically accessed for c.29 500 years, with periodic events of long‐distance (about > 300 km) ochre acquisition during the Aurignacian (c.35–43 ka), suggesting higher mobility than previously suspected. The results reveal previously unknown long‐term, complex spatio‐temporal behavioural patterns during the earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe.     

Phylogenetic analysis of a new fossil Notonectidae (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha) from the Late Jurassic of China

Zhang W.T., Yao Y.Z. & Ren D., June 2012. Phylogenetic analysis of a new fossil Notonectidae (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha) from the Late Jurassic of China. Alcheringa, 239–250. ISSN 0311-5518.

A new fossil species Notonecta vetula sp. nov. is described and illustrated using nymph and adult fossil specimens collected from the Upper Jurassic Chijinqiao Formation, Yumen City, Gansu Province, China. A phylogenetic analysis, based on a combination of fossil and extant backswimmers, was conducted to confirm the position of the new fossil within the Notonectidae.

Wei-ting Zhang [zhangweitinghao@163.com], Yun-zhi Yao* [yaoyz100@gmail.com] and Dong Ren [rendong@mail.cnu.edu.cn], Key Lab of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, PR China; *Corresponding author; also affiliated with: State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy (Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, CAS), Nanjing 210008, PR China. Received 13.7.2011; revised 19.9.2011, accepted 27.9.2011.     

Variation in the taphonomic effect of scavengers in semi‐arid Australia linked to rainfall and the El Niño Southern Oscillation

Scavenging is one of the primary taphonomic processes shaping the final composition of fossil faunal assemblages. The taphonomic effect of scavengers is variable and must be understood in the context of the causes of that variation. In this study, we investigated relationships between the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), variable rainfall and scavenging on 20–40 kg mammal carcasses in semi‐arid New South Wales over four years. Following periods of above‐average rainfall (coincident with the La Niña phase of the ENSO), there was an increased availability of non‐carrion food and scavenging activity was moderate. Following below‐average rainfall (coincident with the El Niño phase of the ENSO), foraging options diminished, leading to a greater importance of carrion in the diet of scavengers and a resultant increase in carcass disturbance, transport and destruction by scavengers. Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were the most taphonomically significant scavengers in the study. Australian ravens (Corvus coronoides) and wedge‐tailed eagles (Aquila audax) were active scavengers throughout the period of the study, but had little impact on bone survival. Lace monitors (Varanus varius) also fed mostly on soft tissue and were only present seasonally. We found that climate variability in the form of short‐term oscillation can result in significant variation in the impact of scavengers on carcasses and may be an important consideration when evaluating site formation scenarios and biases in fossil faunal assemblages. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A new large fossil species of Tiliqua (Squamata; Scincidae) from the Pliocene of the Wellington Caves (New South Wales,Australia)

?erňanský, A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2012. A new large fossil species of Tiliqua (Squamata; Scincidae) from the Pliocene of the Wellington Caves (New South Wales, Australia). Alcheringa, 1–6. ISSN 0311-5518.

We describe an isolated frontal bone referable to a new species, Tiliqua laticephala (Scincidae), from the Pliocene Big Sink doline of the Wellington Caves, central eastern New South Wales, Australia. The bone is very robust, is unusually broad and thick, especially around the bases of the subolfactory processes and represents a large and heavily built lizard. The fossil has multiple fragmentary osteoderms in the frontal region, showing asymmetry in shape and thickness that do not correspond to the more regularly arranged anterior head shields of other scincoids. The specimen shares two unusual character states with extant Tiliqua, especially the large armoured species, T. rugosa. Other large skinks related to T. rugosa (other Tiliqua spp., Corucia zebrata, Egernia cunninghamii, Bellatorias major, Liopholis kintorei) are less similar in terms of frontal shape, thickness, sculpture, osteoderm ornamentation, and positioning of adjacent bones.     

A CASE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS PRESERVED ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL BRONZES—MICRO‐ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION HELPS RECONSTRUCTING PAST ENVIRONMENTS

This paper offers new perspectives for improving our knowledge of arthropods in wet and aerobic archaeological contexts. The very‐near environment of uncleaned buried bronze artefacts, two ronde‐bosse ornaments of a Celtic grave from the Iron Age (275 to 250 bc , La Fosse‐Cotheret, Roissy‐en‐France), was studied by means of optical and scanning electron microscopies. Taking into account recent knowledge on bronze corrosion (decuprification), this micro‐investigation (micro‐archaeology) allowed identification of two fossilized arthropods—Cryptophagus sp. (Insecta, Coleoptera, Cryptophagidae) and Coccotydaeolus sp. (Acari, Tydaeoidea, Iolinidae)—which sheds some light upon the complex taphonomic process that occurred after the burial of a Celtic chariot. These first results support the idea that the local corroded metal/soil system has to be investigated for a better understanding of archaeological microenvironments. Efficient minute investigation of soiled bronzes could be performed prior to systematic cleaning of artefacts.     

The Belgammel Ram,a Hellenistic‐Roman Bronze Proembolion Found off the Coast of Libya: test analysis of function,date and metallurgy,with a digital reference archive

The Belgammel Ram was found off the coast of Libya in 1964, and examined during 2008–9. The following techniques were used: surface non‐contact digitizing using a laser scanner, reflectance transformation imaging using polynomial texture mapping and hemi‐spherical harmonics, digital photogrammetry with dense surface modelling, structured light optical scanning, and X‐ray fluorescence analysis. For internal structure the ram was examined by X‐radiography and 3‐D X‐ray tomography. Metallurgical composition was studied by micro‐drilling and subjecting the samples to scanning electron microscope X‐ray micro‐analysis, micro X‐ray fluorescence and X‐ray backscatter. The lead isotope composition was analysed. The alloy has average percentage composition Cu = 86.9, Sn = 6.3, Pb = 6.6, and Zn = < 0.10. The Belgammel Ram is probably a Hellenistic‐Roman proembolion from a small military vessel or tesseraria. The archived data are at the Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Engineering Sciences, Material Data Centre, University of Southampton ( muvis@soton.ac.uk ).     

Pathological Changes of the Cranium of a Young Female Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus R.)—A Case Study (the Sudety Mts,Poland)

A cranium of a young female cave bear (Ursus spelaeus R.) was found in the Upper Pleistocene sediments of Bear Cave in Kletno, SW Poland. A detailed analysis of the cranium, including radiology, CT and histological methods, revealed numerous pathological changes caused both by diseases and by injuries inflicted by another predator. It is likely that during its lifespan, the young female was exposed to several attacks (bites on the head) from adult bears. The injuries varied in extent and caused bone infection and inflammation. The nature of most of them suggests that they were not fatal but could have had a significant effect on the overall fitness of the animal. In contrast, the lesions on the frontal bone and in the anterior part of the parietal bone may have been the cause of the individual's death. Additionally, the cranium was found to have cut marks, sharp‐edged longitudinal scars that indicate the use of a sharp‐edged tool, and are usually interpreted as effects of skinning. The finding is suggested to be indirect evidence of the existence of people in southern Poland during the Pleistocene. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Non-dietary Marks in the Anterior Dentition of the Krapina Neanderthals

A sample of 82 anterior teeth from Krapina (Croatia) was studied using a light binocular microscope and a scanning electron microscope to document the presence of non-dietary dental scratches. The patterns of distribution, location and orientation of these marks suggest two different aetiologies: scratches on the labial-occlusal enamel border appear to be related to the action of clenching abrasive materials between teeth, while the scratches primarily in the centre of the labial face correspond to cutmarks as described by other researchers. These scratches may have been produced when flake tools involved in processing materials held between the anterior teeth came into contact with the labial enamel face. Alternatively, they may simply reflect some consistent operation which pulled hard objects across the labial surfaces of the anterior teeth. In either case, the marks on the central face of the labial surface provide evidence for manual dexterity in the Neanderthals. Of the seven Krapina individuals which show a predominant pattern, one shows a pattern of left oblique marks, while six provide evidence of right-handedness. Coupled with other Neanderthal or Upper Pleistocene individuals with these patterns, right-handedness is the dominant pattern in 90 per cent of the documented cases. One complicating factor in the analysis of these scratches in the Krapina hominids is that marks of a similar morphology are found in several anterior teeth of Ursus spelaeus from the site. While resembling the marks on the hominid incisors, the scratches on the bears lack a dominant orientation on the labial face and appear to be more variable in their widths. Despite the occurrence of some similarities in the enamel scratches between ursids and hominids at Krapina, the study of anterior dental marks provides information about manipulative activities which are unique to ancient humans. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol., 7 : 133–149 (1997) No. of Figures: 9. No. of Tables: 5. No. of References: 34.     

Assessing bone transformation in late Miocene and Plio‐Pleistocene deposits of Kenya and South Africa

Bone reactivity offers a potential way to record local physical–chemical conditions prevailing in fossilization environments and archaeological sites. In the present study, a series of fossil bone samples from the karstic environments of the Bolt's Farm cave system (Cradle of Humankind, South Africa) and from fluvio‐lacustrine environments of the Tugen Hills (Gregory Rift, Kenya) is analysed. The chemical composition and infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic properties of fossil samples point to a transformation of the biogenic apatite and formation of secondary apatite. Depending on the sample, the secondary apatite corresponds to a carbonate‐bearing hydroxy‐ or fluor‐apatite. The maximum fraction of secondary apatite is close to 60%, coinciding with previous observations in experimental alteration of bone in aqueous solutions and suggesting that a fraction of pristine biological apatite is likely to be preserved. The present results also suggest that the acetic acid treatment of fossil samples moderately increases their average crystallinity but may dissolve carbonate‐rich domains of secondary apatite.     

Cainozoic euphorbiacean wood from the Canning Basin,Western Australia

A new species of fossil wood is described, Bridelioxylon canningense Bamford & McLoughlin, belonging to the Phyllanthoideae group of the Euphorbiaceae. The woods occur in indurated sandstones and conglomerates preserved in palaeochannels incised into the Upper Permian Condren Sandstone in the Landrigan Cliffs, northern Canning Basin, Western Australia. Based on the presence of the dicotyledonous woods and the geomorphological setting of the palaeochannel, a Palaeogene age is suggested for the host rocks. This is the first record of fossil euphorbiacean wood in Australia; pollen has been previously recorded. The fossil wood is most closely comparable to extant members of Bridelia that currently occupy the warmer and wetter parts of Australia.     

Paleodemographic analysis of a fossil porcupine (Hystrix refossa Gervais, 1852) population from the Upper Pleistocene site of Geula Cave (Mount Carmel,Israel)

For decades zooarchaeological studies mainly focused on teeth age profiles to derive central hypotheses concerning human subsistence during the Pleistocene. Behavior was often related to hunting and/or scavenging strategies according to two models: attritional versus catastrophic. However, few studies have estimated basic demographic parameters using standard methods of population ecology, which are necessary for a more confident interpretation of animal paleopopulation structures. Thanks to a remarkably rich fossil bone assemblage from the Upper Pleistocene cave of Geula (Mount Carmel, Israel), in this paper we perform a paleodemographic analysis of Hystrix refossa, Gervais 1852 (Mammalia, Rodentia). We first consider phylogenetic and morphometric dental criteria for the comparison of Pleistocene porcupine species, followed by an examination of taphonomic conditions of the bone assemblage. We focus strongly on the age structure of the fossil population, presenting a new methodological approach that combines life tables and Leslie matrix models – one of the best-known methods in population ecology for assessing population growth and age distribution. We detail demographic parameters derived from cross-sectional life tables and past trends in the porcupine population at Geula Cave using simple matrix projection model. Finally, we were able to perform an elasticity analysis to identify which demographic component was potentially the most critical for influencing growth. We show that the population of H. refossa did not decline or shrink but was stable. Our results permit us to characterize Geula Cave as a natural shelter for porcupines, with limited evidence to scavenging and hunting by either hyenas or humans.     

Evidence of Stress Fracture in a Homo antecessor Metatarsal from Gran Dolina Site (Atapuerca,Spain)

We present the palaeopathological analysis of a right fourth metatarsal (ATD6‐124) recovered from the Atapuerca–Gran Dolina site (Spain). This fossil, ca. 1 Ma, belongs to Homo antecessor, the earliest known European hominin species. The metatarsal exhibits a proliferative lesion on its medial periosteal surface. Periosteal reaction can be the bone response to a wide number of injurious processes. We describe a lesion on the basis of macroscopic and microscopic analyses, including microtomography and scanning electron microscopy. Externally, the osteoblastic lesion presents a highly porotic and disorganised morphology. Internally, we observe a series of micro‐fractures on the compact bone that do not affect the medullary canal. We provide a differential diagnosis and suggest that the ATD6‐124 lesion could correspond to a pedal stress fracture, also known as fatigue or march fracture. Stress fractures have been related to a load increase and muscular fatigue. This type of fracture has been widely reported in the foot of soldiers and athletes, which are usually engaged in strenuous, excessive or prolonged locomotive activities. Despite its high frequency in these groups, stress fractures have not been reported as such in fossil collections, with the exception of a metatarsal belonging to the Sima de los Huesos site (Atapuerca). Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A palaeopathological case of a right maxilla's cemento‐ossifying fibroma

Cemento‐ossifying fibromas (COFs) are rare benign tumours affecting the maxilla and the mandible. The COF, of nonodontogenic origin, consists of a heterogeneous mixture of bone tissues and cementum. The skeleton of burial 154 excavated from the site of Magnicourt‐ en‐Comté (Pas‐de‐Calais) has been studied palaeopathologically. The cemetery is dated from the Merovingian period (6^th–7th century AD) and included 262 burials. In this study, we focus on the differential diagnosis of cemento‐ossifying fibroma and other dyplastic and cystic lesions. Various macroscopic, radiological and histological aspects enable us to make a positive diagnosis of COF. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neosecoptera,a new insect suborder based on specimen discovered in the Late Carboniferous of Tasmania

Psychroptilus burrettae gen. et sp. nov., from the Late Carboniferous of Tasmania, combines characters of the insect orders Palaeodictyoptera and Megasecoptera. Psychroptilus is referred to the Megasecoptera because it lacks paratergal processes on the pronotum, and because its wing venation is simple, with reduced cross veins. However, its wings are not narrowed at their bases, but are as broad as those of the Palaeodictyoptera. It is placed in a new suborder of the Megasecoptera, the Neosecoptera. This suborder differs from the Suborders Eumegasecoptera and Protohymenoptera in having: 1, broad wings that are not narrowed at base; 2, the hind wing slightly broader than the fore wing; and 3, anal veins that all arise from close to the wing base. The insect is possibly the oldest recorded in the southern hemisphere although age determinations of this and the only other known probable Late Carboniferous species, Hadentomoides dwykensis Riek, are not precise. The inclusion of the insect fossil in varve-like sediments and the very few associated fossil species, are indicative of a very cold habitat either at or adjacent to the area producing the sediments. The great majority of insect fossils are associated with abundant plant remains or other fossils indicative of warm conditions in the area of sedimentation. None is recorded from an area apparently as cold as that under which Psychroptilus burrettae was preserved.