Testing the “shift in the balance of power” hypothesis at Swartkrans, South Africa: Hominid cave use and subsistence behavior in the Early Pleistocene

C.K. Brain documented two interesting patterns in the Pleistocene faunas of Swartkrans Cave, South Africa: (1) The earliest depositional units, Members 1 and 2, preserve high numbers of hominid fossils, while the numbers drop sharply in the more recent Member 3. (2) Burned bone specimens, which seem to have been altered in fires tended by hominids, appear for the first time in Member 3. It was suggested that mastery of fire provided a “shift in the balance of power”, allowing hominids to carry out activities in the cave for the first time unmolested by predators. A lack of butchered bones in Members 1 and 2 and their presence in Member 3 provided support for the hypothesis. However, we have now identified butchered bones in all three units. Further, our findings reveal a lack of variability in butchery patterns through time at Swartkrans; in all cases hominids appear to have been proficient carcass foragers. The real “shift” at Swartkrans does not appear to be one of eventual hominid dominance over carnivores, but rather one of a predominance of leopards at Swartkrans in Member 1 times to the alternating presence of leopards and hyenas in Members 2 and 3. Consistent leopard presence in Member 1 seems to have discouraged hominid activity in the vicinity of the cave. In contrast, by the time Members 2 and 3 were forming hominids may have temporarily used the cave, taking advantage of those periods of carnivore absence.     

Finding the message in intricacy: The association of lithics and fauna on Lower Paleolithic Multiple Carcass Sites

This paper examines alternative models for the interpretation of Lower Paleolithic Multiple Carcass Sites based on analysis of the site of Holon, Israel. The nature of the lithic and faunal assemblages found at Holon are most consistent with a palimpsest site that represents repeated occupations of a marsh edge location by both hominids and carnivores, the remains of which have been moderated by natural agencies. It is argued that ambush hunting by hominids was likely to have been one of the activities involved in the accumulation of lithic and faunal remains on the site. A comparison of the lithic assemblage found at Holon with the lithic assemblages from Lower Paleolithic Single Carcass Sites suggest differences between the activities that took place on these sites and the type of activities that took place at Holon.     

Anthropogenic Causes, Mechanisms and Effects of Upper Pliocene and Quaternary Extinctinctions of Large Vertebrates

Successive waves of extinction of large vertebrates have swept the globe since the Pliocene. In contrast to such episodes in earlier geological epochs, many of the species of large herbivores and carnivores, flightless birds, and giant tortoises which became extinct during this period were not replaced in these niches by other species. Relying on data from the fossil and archaeological records as well as on ethological and palaeo-ecological arguments, the authors explain why hominids are to be held responsible for this ecological genocide. Possible ecological and climatic consequences of the extinctions are discussed. These considerations cast doubt upon the notion of early hominids as scavengers.     

Incisor labial surface wear striations in modern humans and their implications for handedness in Middle and Late Pleistocene hominids

Over the past four decades several workers have argued that the orientations of striations on the labial surfaces of the front teeth of Middle and Late Pleistocene fossils attributed to Neanderthals and antecedent archaic hominids can tell us something about handedness. These researchers have suggested that such scratches result from stone tools scraping across the incisors during ‘stuff‐and‐cut’ behaviours, and that they reflect directions of hand movements and handedness. In this study, we examine comparable wear features on the incisors of anatomically modern humans to determine whether striation angle may reflect handedness. The teeth from 66 individuals representing four groups with known differences in subsistence practices (Aleut, Arikara, Illinois Bluff, and Puye) were examined. Photomicrographs were made of the maxillary central incisor labial surfaces of all individuals at 56× magnification. These photomicrographs were scanned to image files, and orientations of all visible wear striations were measured using a semi‐automated image analysis procedure. Approximately three‐quarters of all labial surfaces showed a preferred striation orientation. Of those, most had preferred apico‐cervical or vertical striation orientations, independent of cultural affiliation. Few showed the tendency toward diagonally‐oriented scratches expected if handedness is related to scratch orientation. We found no evidence for ‘stuff‐and‐cut’ striations, despite the fact that at least one of the groups studied—the Aleut—are documented to have used this behaviour. In sum, there is evidently no relationship between striation orientation and handedness in the groups studied. It is, therefore, unlikely that labial scratch orientation in Middle and Late Pleistocene hominids reflects handedness if they used their front teeth in a manner comparable to that of any of the anatomically modern groups considered here. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

敦煌归义军曹氏统治者为粟特后裔说

848— 10 3 6年间以敦煌为中心存在的归义军政权 ,大体上可以分成两个阶段 ,以 914年为界 ,前期由张氏家族掌权 ,后期由曹氏掌权。前后期的归义军政权 ,在内政和外交等方面 ,有许多明显的不同 ,迄今没有圆满的解说。本文提出曹氏统治者出自粟特后裔 ,并从敦煌粟特曹姓的来源、粟特人担任归义军要职的情况、曹氏与回鹘于阗的联姻、粟特人在曹氏政权中的地位等方面加以论证 ,从而对曹氏政权的特性及其对敦煌历史的贡献 ,给予了比较合理的说明     

SURFACE SCATTERS of BUILDING STONE: ENHANCING FIELD SURVEY WORK

It is observable - from standing buildings-that the stone used in the study area of the East Brittany Survey has for the most part travelled a very short distance (< 5 km), whether the building is grand or simple. Excavation has demonstrated that the same is true of structures of earlier periods, although Roman building is differentiated by its preference for the very hard stones that occur to the north of the area. Surface scatters of building stone on modern arable fields, if carefully observed, are a useful tool for locating stone-built settlements of the historic period and scatters of Cambrian siltstones can point to the location of medieval seigneurial settlements. Manuring scatters of roofing slate, which can be differentiated by period, are a useful tool for defining the arable worked from settlements, especially in the later and post-medieval periods, and therefore for mapping the changing patterns of land-use. With sufficient training of volunteers or of a research team, a large body of data can be gathered very economically.     

新郑唐户新石器时代遗址调查

新郑唐户新石器时代遗址的仰韶文化内涵丰富,依据采集的大量陶器的器物特征,可分为早、中、晚三期,这对于解决遗址性质、区分区域类型、排列文化谱系以及今后这一带新石器时代的考古发掘与研究,都具有重要的参考价值.众多文献记载,新郑是传说中的黄帝故里,该遗址的南部传为"黄帝口",其仰韶文化遗存又十分丰富,这可能与传说时代黄帝氏族的重要中心聚落有关.     

Non-Iterative Equivalent Linearization Based on Secant Period for Estimating Maximum Deformations of Existing Structures

The capacity spectrum method of ATC-40 uses the secant period as the equivalent period of equivalent linear systems. Therefore, it results in a direct graphical comparison. The maximum inelastic displacement and acceleration demands of structures can be simultaneously obtained from the intersection of the demand and capacity diagrams. However, for evaluation of existing structures, the demands need to be determined through iterations since the equivalent period and damping of the equivalent linear systems currently available are both a function of the (displacement) ductility ratio, which is unknown and is the target of evaluation. In addition, the equivalent damping used in the capacity spectrum method is independent of periods of vibration. It may lead to poor estimations of maximum responses especially for short-period systems. This article proposes two equivalent linear systems based on the secant period to estimate the maximum displacement and acceleration responses of existing structures. Both the recommended equivalent period and damping are defined by the strength ratio (elastic lateral strength/yield lateral strength), rather than the ductility ratio. Because the strength ratio of existing structures is a known parameter, the maximum displacement and acceleration responses of these structures can be determined without iterations. Besides, effects of periods of vibration on the equivalent linear systems are also included in this study. The equivalent damping is derived from statistical analyses for bilinear single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems with different periods of vibration, strength ratios and post-yield stiffness based on 72 earthquake ground motions recorded on firm sites. Procedures and examples for applications of the proposed equivalent linear systems on nonlinear static analysis procedures are also provided.     

An Interdisciplinary Human-Environmental Examination of Effects Consistent with the Anthropocene in the Lower Illinois River Valley

Using archaeological and ecological data of animal communities, and fish communities in particular, we test for evidence consistent with the Anthropocene in the lower Illinois River valley across millennia. Environmental impacts by preindustrialized peoples may be minor compared to current alterations; however, this hypothesis is untested and should be assessed. Using the relative abundance of fish taxa, we tested for differences among archaeological and modern time periods, taking advantage of published zooarchaeological data sets and newly analyzed data. Collections from all archaeological time periods differed significantly from modern collections, but the relative abundance of fishes did not differ significantly among archaeological time periods. Sociopolitical context, material culture, plant-based subsistence patterns, and the use of animal classes shifted temporally, but these differences did not extend to the relative abundance of fish families. Our results suggest that dominating human influences on fish communities did not occur prior to the Late Woodland period in the lower Illinois River.     

Changes in the distribution of osteoarthritis over historical time

A total of 2635 skeletons recovered from different sites in England was examined for the presence of osteoarthritis (OA); 206 were from pre-medieval sites, 1453 from medieval sites and 976 from post-medieval sites. Where OA was considered to be present in a joint, the site was noted and for each time period the total number of anatomical sites with the condition was determined and the number of major sites with OA (10 in number) was expressed as a proportion of this total. There were no differences in the distribution of osteoarthritis between the pre-medieval and medieval periods but there were between the medieval and post-medieval periods. In the post-medieval period the proportion of osteoarthritis of the knee increased whereas that of the hip decreased; the proportion of osteoarthritis of the hands also increased whereas that of the wrist decreased. Other data presented indicate that patellofemoral disease is about twice as common as tibio-femoral disease in both medieval and post-medieval periods and that lateral compartment disease is almost as common as medial compartment disease.     

明清时期(1440-1899年)长江中下游地区冬季异常冷暖气候研究

本文以长江中下游地区的七个省市为研究对象 ,利用方志资料 ,在有记载的年份中从各省市每年只取一条资料 ,按照资料冷暖程度分别赋予一定的值 ,以十年为单位 ,将这些值相加 ,然后将所得的总数除以 10 ,本文称之为温度指数 ,共得到 4 6个温度指数值 ,取其平均数 1.7为参数 ,大致可将明清时期 (14 4 0年到 1899年 )冬季异常气候变化的过程分为三个暖时段 ,即 14 4 0 -14 89年 ,15 2 0 - 16 19年和 172 0 - 1789年 ;三个冷时段即 14 90 - 15 19年 ,16 2 0 - 1719年和 1790 -1899年。无论在暖时段还是冷时段 ,总存在着与之相反的极端个别或一些年份的冷或暖的回旋。如在第二个暖时段中 15 6 0年至 15 6 9年、第三个暖时段中 174 1至 174 6年冷冬的回旋和在第二个冷时段中 170 0至 170 9年、第三个冷时段中 185 0至 185 9年暖冬的回旋     

Squatting among the neandertals: A problem in the behavioral interpretation of skeletal morphology

The analysis of the Neandertal and Skhul hominid metric and non-metric lower limb variations which have been considered indicative of squatting suggests that squatting was a common position of repose among these Pleistocene hominids. Although the total morphological pattern of the Neandertals supports this conclusion, few of the variations commonly associated with squatting provide conclusive evidence of previous habitual squatting. It is necessary to consider each variation with reference to its etiology and its association in the total morphological pattern before deriving similar behavioral interpretations from the skeletal morphology.     

Throwing Behaviour and the Mass Distribution of Geological Hand Samples,Hand Grenades and Olduvian Manuports

This research examines the efficiency of impact energy delivered by a thrown rock and the relationship between the mechanics of throwing and how rocks are chosen. This choice tends to lead to a Poisson distribution of mass with different means for men and women. These values are reflected in the mass of hand samples selected by geologists, in the throwing stones made in the last century by the Nuie Islanders, in the sport of handball and in the design of hand grenades. When the mass distributions of manuports from Olduvai and Koobi Fora are examined two very different mass distributions can be seen: one indicating a probable selection by larger creatures of almost modern human size, the other by creatures that were far smaller. Observations of Olduvian cobble tools indicate that their mass distribution is similar to the manuports hoarded by the larger hominids. A simple engineering model links the mass distribution of selected rocks to body size and it is suggested that this technique can be used to reveal sexual differences in cobble tool making and any differences in body size during the development of the Olduvian industry or at distinct geographical sites. Perhaps the most intriguing use of this technique, however, is in the examination of the mass and form of stone deposits laid down before stone tools were manufactured. A specific clustering would indicate, within a certain degree of statistical probability, the deliberate selection and hoarding by a hominid species that used the systematic hurling of rocks as a behavioural strategy. In this case, stone tools would represent an improvement on an object of the same mass and material that had been part of an earlier culture.     

Hominid–Carnivore Coevolution and Invasion of the Predatory Guild

Coevolution is defined as reciprocal selective pressures that operate to make the evolution of one taxon partially dependent on the evolution another. This process often involves multiple species exploiting shared limiting resources. In classic coevolutionary models, populations of sympatric species are seen to diverge in one or more morphological, ecological, or behavioral traits to effect more even partitioning of resources and reduce levels of interspecific competition. Character displacement and resource partitioning are thought to be central not only to how species coexist on limited resources, but also to how species invade new resource niches. Hominid invasion of the predatory guild at least 2 my ago would have brought them into contact with a range of new selective pressures including competition with a number of large-bodied predators. This study explores resource partitioning between hominids and other Plio-Pleistocene large-bodied predators through analyses of predator food transport strategies. The anatomical content (head/limb MNE) of hominid transported faunal assemblages at Bed I Olduvai and FxJj 50 (Koobi Fora), when compared to modern predator control cases, suggests that Plio-Pleistocene hominids practiced food transport strategies intermediate between those of top predators such as wolves and those of confrontational scavengers such as spotted hyaenas. Plio-Pleistocene hominid food transport strategies do not resemble those of nonconfrontational scavengers such as brown and striped hyenas. The highly regular patterns differentiating bone assemblages accumulated by top predators, hominids, and confrontational and nonconfrontational scavengers suggest that hominid invasion of the predatory guild involved resource partitioning potentially based on some form of character displacement.     

Mandibular ramus posterior flexure: a sex indicator in Homo sapiens fossil hominids?

Accurate determination of sex in skeletal human samples is very important in anthropological and demographic studies. Recently, Loth and Henneberg have suggested that a new osteological criterion on the mandible, the mandibular ramus posterior flexure (MRPF) had a high sex discriminating effectiveness. A preliminary test applied to a few hominid mandibles )including Australopithecines, Homo erectus, Neanderthals and Upper palaeolithic hominids) apparently confirmed the high reliability of the MRPF as a sex indicator ‘over time and through palaeospecies’. As the pelvis is commonly considered as providing the most significant criteria that allows the establishment of skeletal sexual dimorphism of adults, the present paper evaluates this mandibular feature on a few additional palaeolithic hominids (i.e. Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans) for whom a gender estimation was known based upon the pelvis. This analysis was conducted on the original material and its results appear in contradiction with those of the previous studies made by Loth and Henneberg. A reconsideration of the visual assessment of MRPF as a sex indicator in Homo sapiens fossil hominids is therefore suggested. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Interpreting pachyderm single carcass sites in the African Lower and Early Middle Pleistocene record: A multidisciplinary approach to the site of Nadung’a 4 (Kenya)

Nadung’a 4 is one of the single carcass pachyderm sites recorded in East Africa during the Lower and Early Middle Pleistocene. The site has yielded an abundant lithic assemblage in close association with the partial carcass of an elephant. Conjoined pedological, geoarchaeological, spatial, technological, and taphonomical analyses have been carried out to address the relationship between hominids and elephant. The resulting data are consistent with a non-fortuitous association between both categories of remains. The lithic artefacts do not match a classical Acheulean tool-kit, as would be expected for the time period ascribed to the site, and the functional patterns inferred from their analysis make this site radically different from other purported butchery sites. The implications of these original features are discussed.     

Conceptualizing and Researching Policy Convergence1

This article develops criteria to classify the relative development of public policies across countries as convergent, divergent, identical and synchronous, and indeterminate. It emphasizes that relative policy developments have to be compared over defined time periods, and that they cannot be aggregated or averaged over several time periods, or across policy sectors or policy dimensions. The significance of policy convergence between countries needs to be evaluated against relative policy developments between other countries during the same period. Given these rigorous conceptual and methodological requirements, it is doubtful whether policy convergence is as pervasive as generally assumed in the literature.     

临水窑白底黑花瓷器的工艺演变

临水窑是磁州窑系中重要的窑口,在中国古代北方窑业发展和演变的历史上,有着举足轻重的地位。本文较为系统地分析了宋代、金代、元代时期临水窑白底黑(褐)花样品的物理性质、显微结构、化学成分等信息,探讨了临水窑宋、金、元白底黑花瓷器的工艺特点及其演变规律。结果表明:临水窑各年代白底釉下彩绘样品在胎与釉之间均施有化妆土;同时宋金时期样品化妆土的厚度整体略高于元代样品,且厚度相对均匀;成分分析表明,临水窑样品化妆土具有高K低Na特点,而不同年代的化妆土成分略有变化。总体说来,宋金时期的烧制工艺高于元代。     

浙江安吉笔架山春秋战国墓葬发掘简报

浙江安吉笔架山春秋战国墓结构分为两类,出土了大量器物。以原始瓷和印纹硬陶为标准器,可将墓葬分为早、晚两期,其年代应处于战国早期,此墓葬为研究浙江地区春秋战国时期文化过渡及战国时期墓葬葬期提供了新的材料。     

The World's Water Resources and their Changes Over Space and Time

A moisture cycle of 1800 to 2000 years has been established for the earth as a whole, and the present period represents a transition from a wet to a dry phase in which the amount of water in oceans is gradually increasing at the expense of water from the land surface. Runoff fluctuations on the land surface also follow cycles of varying duration. It has been established that wet periods in some sections of the earth's surface are always matched by dry periods elsewhere. A definite geographic localization of zones of synchronous and asynchronous runoff fluctuations can be used in long-range runoff forecasts, which are needed for water-budget and waterpower-potential calculations. Prospects for future elimination of the disproportion between water needs and water resources are suggested. Steps to overcome the growing pollution problem are also proposed.