Palaeolithic Living Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt: A Review Article

Abstract

In 2000 Leuven University Press of Leuven, Belgium published a very important volume on the prehistory of Egypt entitled Palaeolithic Living Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt. Egyptian Prehistory Monographs 2, edited by Pierre M. Vermeersch. This impressive volume presents partial results of the fieldwork of the Belgian Middle Egypt Prehistoric Project of Leuven University in the Nile Valley, between Luxor and Assiut, carried out from 1976 to 1991, and in 1994. A second publication, Palaeolithic Quarrying Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt, also edited by Pierre M. Vermeersch, appeared in 2002 as the fourth volume of the series. The 2000 volume, under review here, is a collection of detailed reports on nine excavated Paleolithic living sites, ranging in time from Acheulean to Epipaleolithic, complemented by a chapter on Quaternary geomorphology and stratigraphy of the Makhadma area, near Qena, as well as a study of chronology, subsistence, and environment of the Late Paleolithic fishing sites at Makhadma. The reviewers discuss in detail most of the sites reported and address the conclusions reached by the Belgian authors in light of their own experiences with the prehistory of the Egyptian Nile. Of particular interest are differences in views concerning late use of Levallois technology in the Nile Valley and the geomorphological history of the river.     

A radiocarbon chronology for the complete Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transitional sequence of Les Cottés (France)

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition is the key period for our understanding of Neanderthal and modern human interactions in Europe. The site of Les Cottés in south-west France is one of the rare sites with a complete and well defined sequence covering this transition period. We undertook an extensive radiocarbon dating program on mammal bone which allows us to propose a chronological framework of five distinct phases dating from the Mousterian to the Early Aurignacian at this site. We found that the Mousterian and Châtelperronian industries are separated from the overlying Protoaurignacian by a gap of approximately 1000 calendar years. Based on a comparison with Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe we see an overlap in the ages of Châtelperronian industries and Aurignacian lithic assemblages, which are usually associated with Anatomical Modern Humans, which is consistent with an acculturation at distance model for these late Neanderthals. The Proto and Early Aurignacian appear contemporaneous indicating that this transition was rapid in this region. Anatomically Modern Humans are present at the site of Les Cottés at least at 39,500 cal BP roughly coincident with the onset of the cold phase Heinrich 4.     

The Neronian and the historical structure of cultural shifts from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic in Mediterranean France

The end of the Middle Palaeolithic period can be considered a key moment in the history of humanity, characterized by profound changes in traditional Palaeolithic societies. Whatever the reasons for this historical change, it seems well established that it took place within a particularly dynamic phase of these societies, when Upper Palaeolithic technical processes were already emerging. The analysis of recent Mousterian industries in Mediterranean France highlights certain points of inflection, which presage new ways of life. The analysis of key sites demonstrates important transformations within the last Neanderthal societies, with a gradual rearticulation of Mousterian technical systems around the production of blades and points and with profound changes in the relationship of the craftsman with his tools. Even if they are typical of the late Mousterian more generally, these technically distinctive industries have such distinct chronological, territorial and cultural characteristics that they can be referred to by a specific name, the “Néronien” (Neronian). Stratigraphically speaking, this group of assemblages – at the crossroads of the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic – appears in some important regional sequences just before the appearance of the first “true” Upper Palaeolithic industries (the Protoaurignacian). However, this Neronian doesn't represent the end of the Middle Palaeolithic period in the Rhône valley. The final Moustérien of this region is actually marked by deep breakdowns of the traditional balances in the human groups. This second point of inflection could characterize a true destabilization of Mousterian societies. There is an interesting parallelism between the historical paths of the Castelperronian in the arch of the Massif Central and the Neronian in the Rhône valley. It also highlights the mosaic nature of the profound cultural changes that occurred at the end of the Middle Palaeolithic.     

The Palaeolithic of the Middle Son valley, north-central India: Changes in hominin lithic technology and behaviour during the Upper Pleistocene

The Middle Son valley in north-central India preserves extensive Quaternary alluvial deposits. A long history of archaeological and geological research in the valley has resulted in the discovery of lithic assemblages ranging from Lower Palaeolithic to microlithic, a rich corpus of fossilised faunal remains, and ash deposits from the 74,000 year-old Toba supereruption. This paper reviews the chronology and stratigraphy of the valley’s Quaternary sediments, and presents a model that hypothesizes the temporal sequence of important lithic assemblages from excavated and surface contexts. Artefacts in these assemblages are analysed and changes in lithic technology through time are described; this evidence is used to propose shifts in hominin behaviour and demographic structure in this region during the Upper Pleistocene. Recognising gaps in our understanding of the Middle Son record, future avenues of research are recommended that will build upon previous research and address questions of palaeoanthropological significance. The Middle Son valley preserves a long and rich record of hominin occupation from all periods of the Palaeolithic that is rarely paralleled by other sites in India.     

捷贝尔·撒哈巴--117号遗址旧石器时代末期墓地的研究

位于埃及和苏丹两国交界处的努比亚地区,为建设尼罗河下游的阿斯旺大坝,在２０世纪６０年代曾进行过考古调查与发掘。虽然许多遗址在１９７０年水库建成后已被淹没,但那些抢救性的发掘与调查仍为我们留下了弥足珍贵的考古资料。本文论及的 １１７号遗址即是这批资料中十分重要的一处,其内涵为旧石器时代末期的墓地,极大地修正了以往人们关于史前人类只是在新石器时代才营造集团墓地的认识。 １１７号遗址位于尼罗河东岸,在苏丹国境内,向南约３公里即是苏丹北部的重要城市瓦迪·哈勒法（Ｗａｄｉ Ｈａｌｆａ）（图一）,其北不远处是…     

Variability in Faunal Assemblages: The Influence of Hunting Skill, Sharing, Dogs, and Mode of Cooking on Faunal Remains at a Sedentary Kalahari Community

Variability in faunal assemblages from different sites and/or from different time periods is often attributed to economic or taphonomic factors. The role of sharing on faunal remain distributions is compared to other factors that have been suggested to influence these distributions, such as hunting skill. Faunal species and skeletal elements are compared among three hunter—gatherer camps that form a sharing network. These are contrasted with those of two other hunter—gatherer camps located at the same Kalahari community occupied by an unusual family that is a relative isolate in terms of sharing. The effect of sharing on equalizing variation in hunting success as reflected in the faunal remain inventory is explored from the five camps inventoried in 1990. Complicating factors which tend to affect faunal remain frequencies are also examined, such as cooking technique and dogs. All faunal remains visible on the surface of each camp were recorded according to species, element or fragment portion, age (mature or immature), and, when possible, side. At all but one camp, surface faunal remains were recorded both before and after ethnographic observations during the dry season of 1990. In addition to hunting success, all occurrences of sharing and consumption of meat were recorded during these observation periods and those conducted on and off between 1987 and 1992. Although participation in a sharing network obscures differences in hunting skill in the archaeological record, sharing impacts on faunal assemblages in interesting ways that are potentially archaeologically visible. Sharing in strongly egalitarian societies levels unequal hunting skill that could otherwise affect faunal remain frequencies, taxa richness, meat weight, and other indices measured here. In these societies, sharing reinforces social bonding between kin and friends in ways that help unit families from different camps.Zooarchaeologists have become accustomed to high levels of confidence in their inferences about the origins, functions, and responses to stress of animal remains. This confidence rests on the causal and functional links between attributes of these remains and the processes and contexts which generate them. Their investigations are presently moving toward wider inferences about the context and functions of bones in ancient hominids' behavioral systems… Zooarchaeologists now need a different set of inferential strategies than that which characterized their preceding phase of research. (Gifford 1991:215)     

Multiple origins of Bondi Cave and Ortvale Klde (NW Georgia) obsidians and human mobility in Transcaucasia during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic

Using PIXE four types of elemental compositions were found among obsidian artefacts from the Bondi Cave and Ortvale Klde, Middle to Upper Palaeolithic sites in NW Georgia. One of those types corresponds to obsidians from the Chikiani source, whose compositions were determined with a very good agreement by PIXE and ICP-AES/MS. The composition of Chikiani obsidians is remarkably constant despite K–Ar and ³⁹Ar/⁴⁰Ar extrusion ages from ca 2.4 and 2.8 Ma. The compositions of two other groups of obsidian artefacts are similar to source materials from eastern Anatolia and Armenia, in particular Ikisdere, Sarikamis, Gutansar, and Hatis. Obsidian is only a minority component in the lithic assemblages at the Bondi Cave and Ortvale Klde. Both Neanderthal and Modern Human populations used obsidian in particular from Chikiani. Considering that the shortest walking distance to this nearest source is at minimum of about 180 km, and to other potential sources of more than 350 km it is suggested that this material reached these two sites mostly, if not exclusively, by a series of ‘down the line’ exchanges.     

The Upper Palaeolithic Lithic Industry of Nazlet Khater 4 (Egypt): Implications for the Stone Age/Palaeolithic of Northeastern Africa

Between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and 2, Northeast Africa witnessed migrations of Homo sapiens into Eurasia. Within the context of the aridification of the Sahara, the Nile Valley probably offered a very attractive corridor into Eurasia. This region and this period are therefore central for the (pre)history of the out-of-Africa peopling of modern humans. However, there are very few sites from the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic that document these migration events. In Egypt, the site of Nazlet Khater 4 (NK4), which is related to ancient H. sapiens quarrying activities, is one of them. Its lithic assemblage shows an important laminar component, and this, associated with its chronological position (ca. 33 ka), means that the site is the most ancient Upper Palaeolithic sites of this region. The detailed study of the Nazlet Khater 4 lithic material shows that blade production (volumetric reduction) is also associated with flake production (surface reduction). This technological duality addresses the issue of direct attribution of NK4 to the Upper Palaeolithic.     

A Case of Marked Bilateral Asymmetry in the Upper Limbs of an Upper Palaeolithic Male from Barma Grande (Liguria), Italy

Barma Grande 2, a male skeleton of upper palaeolithic age from Balzi Rossi (Liguria, Italy), shows a marked degree of upper limb bilateral asymmetry. Similar cases of asymmetry in palaeolithic hominid fossils have variously been attributed to high levels of behavioural asymmetry (related to handedness) or a pathologically induced alteration of upper limb skeletal remodelling processes. As in many of these cases, the skeleton from Barma Grande lacks any indications of trauma or pathology in the smaller left limb. Consideration of the morphology of the preserved upper limb elements and a comparative analysis of asymmetry in normal and pathological male palaeolithic fossils and normal recent human samples suggests that the asymmetry in Barma Grande 2 was a secondary effect of trauma or pathology in the left side. The degree and pattern of asymmetry in numerous humeral and ulnar measurements indicates an adult onset of altered loading patterns. Several possible aetiological factors are considered, with the most probable being an entrapment neuropathy, direct trauma to one or more muscles about the shoulder, or possibly glenohumeral joint instability. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

维多利亚时代中期英国中产阶级中上层的家庭意识探究

维多利亚时代中期 ,英国中上层中产阶级形成了颇具特色的家庭意识。在理念上 ,他们坚持公共生活领域和私人生活领域的分离 ,推崇贤妻良母型的“家庭天使” ,营造温和的家庭亲子关系。在现实中 ,却处处体现出性别的不平等和女性的不自由 ,因而有悖于自由平等的时代精神。当时 ,很多妇女屈从于现实的安排 ,但仍有少数知识女性觉醒 ,在争取自由平等的过程中对妇女解放有了理性的认识。对这一问题的探讨 ,有助于我们更好地理解英国家庭与社会现代化的曲折历程。     

Paleoethology as a tool for the development of archaeological models of land-use: the Crimean Middle Palaeolithic

The principal aim of our research is to capitalize on the close relationship between prehistoric hunters and prey to develop spatial models for the investigation of land-use patterns. Ideally, these models should be useful both as predictive tools for designing regional archaeological surveys, and as analytical tools for studying the distribution of known archaeological sites. Here, we build upon a basic G.I.S. model (including standard environmental variables such as slope, aspect and distance to water) adding a paleoethological variable in the form of range reconstructions for the regionally dominant, prehistoric human prey species: Equus hydruntinus.     

The history of stones: behavioural inferences and temporal resolution of an archaeological assemblage from the Middle Palaeolithic

Behavioural issues are a main focus of current Palaeolithic research, especially where the archaeological record of archaic hominids is concerned. Often these issues are approached using archaeological assemblages that are palimpsests defined exclusively by stratigraphic criteria. The aim of this paper is to discuss whether such assemblages are adequate for solving behavioural questions. As a case study, we will present the lithic provisioning strategies documented in level L of the Abric Romaní Middle Palaeolithic site. The results of this study suggest that the number of events and/or the amount of time included in the archaeological assemblages could be relevant when explaining the interassemblage variability, given that palimpsests tend to reduce the behavioural variability. If we want to approach the behavioural domain, we need archaeological assemblages of higher temporal resolution, defined through the identification of single activity events.     

Using 3D scanning in the investigation of Upper Palaeolithic engravings: first results of a pilot study

This paper deals with the reinvestigation of selected engravings on slate plaquettes from the Late Upper Palaeolithic site of Gönnersdorf, Germany, by applying new 3D scanning methods for the first time. The aim of this method is to obtain further information about stylistic aspects of the depictions as well as to identify an inner chronology and interrelationship of the lines. In addition new options of 3D photography are tested as a further visual support of investigation and documentation. Previously analyses were subjective whereas the new interpretation uses impartial metric methods. In the future the more objective results will allow the comparison of engravings and their details, with the aim of discerning different artists as well as obtaining a better understanding of the art of former hunter- gatherer societies.     

Insights into early Middle Palaeolithic tool use and hafting in Western Europe. The functional analysis of level IIa of the early Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (France)

Results are presented from the functional analysis of a large selection of tools from level IIa of the early Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-St-Vaast (France). Results indicate that the site represents a hunting stand with a strong focus on hunting and animal processing activities, next to a maintenance component that appears to concern retooling and repair activities in preparation of the hunting episode(s). In spite of the site's age, a large part of the tool assemblage proves to have been used while hafted. Expertise in hafting was even quite elaborate in the sense that it includes tools for which hafting is not essential. It confirms the importance of hafting studies for improving insights into assemblage variability and past human behaviour.     

Mixed occupation during the Middle Palaeolithic: Case study of a small pit-cave-site of Les Pêcheurs (Ardèche,south-eastern France)

The Pêcheurs cave is a unique example of a Middle Palaeolithic site with three kinds of accumulations: (1) ibex that died in a natural trap, (2) carnivores that died within the cavity, and, (3) a series of short-term occupations by humans who left a few artifacts and a hearth area. Biological patterns of ibex remains (skeletal parts, age) show a homogeneous structure, related to natural death inside the cave. The Chassezac valley is narrow and sinuous, bordered by steep cliffs occupied by well-adapted hoofed-species (Caprinae). Moreover, Les Pêcheurs is a shallow cave, pit-like, and in its deepest part (Sector 4) provided both man and animals with shelter. The presence of a fire place (in the middle of the sequence of Sector 4) firmly indicates the presence of an in situ occupation by a small group of hominids. According to the stratigraphical patterns and the analysis of the lithic assemblages, artifacts do not seem to have been introduced into sediments. The lithic assemblages (technically homogeneous) indicate that small mobile human groups inhabited a cave that offered, by virtue of its morphology, a natural shelter against the cold winds blowing in the Chassezac valley and the plateaus of the south-eastern borders of the Massif Central Mountains. The exploitation of biotopes such as this rocky area constitutes a specific case of human subsistence behavior and settlement strategy. The deepest layer is characterized by a lithic assemblage mostly made of local raw material (quartz) implying a low investment in lithic production. Few flakes made from non-local flints attest to the mobility of the human occupants who moved across these areas and perhaps found in the valleys, short-term refuge.