Food for thought: using game cameras to better understand the movement of bones by scavenging in archaeological faunal assemblages

This paper questions our understanding of the movement of bones by animal scavengers in the archaeological record. Since assumptions regarding the effects of animal scavenging shape final interpretations of skeletal element frequencies in archaeological faunal assemblages, they are important for our understanding and reconstruction of ancient human behaviour. The results of a 4-year actualistic kangaroo scavenging study from Australia are used to question our understanding of the movement of the bone by contrasting visual data captured by motion-activated digital game cameras with traditional taphonomic studies using skeletal element frequencies. Game cameras are commonly used by ecologists to capture the behaviour of living species but have not yet been used in experimental archaeology where visually documenting animal scavenging behaviour can be used to understand the movement of carcasses and individual bones. Results suggest that traditional zooarchaeological analyses may not be accurate indicators of hunted versus scavenged prey in archaeological faunal assemblages. Moreover, they most certainly fail to document the entire suite of animals scavenging a carcass. These implications are discussed with particular reference to the ability to definitively ascertain the role of humans in the megafaunal extinction debate in Australia.     

On the Causes of Perforations in Archaeological Domestic Cattle Skulls

We have undertaken a preliminary survey of the occurrence of cranial perforations which have been noted on the posterior portion of archaeological cattle skulls. The interest arose from the authors independent encounter with unusually high frequencies of this condition in assemblages from Bruges and Lincoln and the subsequent search for an explanation. A rapid literature survey and direct contact with other colleagues in the field showed that the phenomenon is widespread in European material and represented throughout a range of time periods and geographical locations. It is also clear that a variety of diverse but untested theories have been proposed by various workers in an attempt to explain the condition. A number of possible aetiological factors are discussed in an attempt to establish the most likely explanations. On the basis of this brief survey, which includes the evaluation of additional archaeological evidence from some of the assemblages, it would appear that parasites, tumours and infection can be ruled out as causal factors. Although not clearly established, it is suggested that a congenital or yoking pressure origin is more likely. If this is the case, then the presence of cranial perforations in domestic cattle may provide important information regarding the temporal and spatial spread of a specific congenital condition or yoking practice. Only a wider survey of both archaeological and modern comparative material (including other bovid species) will enable a full appraisal of the yoking versus congenital hypothesis.     

A Touch of Humor

Abstract

Survey of the modern ground surface is a common and important element of archaeological practice. Yet the properties of recovered surface assemblages vary according to several factors that are not intrinsic to the assemblages themselves. Such factors are briefly surveyed and one, reliability—the probability that a surface appears similar following successive cultivation episodes—is examined at length. Ina Michigan case study, the reliability of a cultivated surface is complicated by significant random variation. Among the several implications that this finding holds for research and management, perhaps the most important is the need to inspect a cultivated surface several times, not merely once, to accurately gauge its true archaeological character.     

Bower birds,bones and archaeology

Objects collected by the Australian great bower bird, Chlamydera nuchalis, may include artifacts and human food debris. The birds could affect the shape and interpretation of some archaeological assemblages. Bones from two bower collections are described according to: (1) their sizes and shapes; (2) the taxa and elements represented; and (3) marks and damage. The potential relevance of the birds for archaeological interpretation is assessed and ways of recognizing bias caused by the birds are discussed.     

The history of stones: behavioural inferences and temporal resolution of an archaeological assemblage from the Middle Palaeolithic

Behavioural issues are a main focus of current Palaeolithic research, especially where the archaeological record of archaic hominids is concerned. Often these issues are approached using archaeological assemblages that are palimpsests defined exclusively by stratigraphic criteria. The aim of this paper is to discuss whether such assemblages are adequate for solving behavioural questions. As a case study, we will present the lithic provisioning strategies documented in level L of the Abric Romaní Middle Palaeolithic site. The results of this study suggest that the number of events and/or the amount of time included in the archaeological assemblages could be relevant when explaining the interassemblage variability, given that palimpsests tend to reduce the behavioural variability. If we want to approach the behavioural domain, we need archaeological assemblages of higher temporal resolution, defined through the identification of single activity events.     

Stability of phytoliths in the archaeological record: a dissolution study of modern and fossil phytoliths

Opaline phytoliths are important microfossils used in archaeological and ecological research. Relatively little is known about the stability of phytoliths after burial. Under alkaline pH conditions they can dissolve, and mechanical disturbances can cause a loss of their more delicate appendages. Here we present an experimental study of phytolith stability (combination of solubility and abrasion). Modern and fossil phytoliths were extracted from wheat using new methods to minimize dissolution, and by burning in an oven. These assemblages were placed in a solution buffered to pH 10 and maintained under constant temperature and shaking conditions. The silicon concentrations in the solution were monitored once a week for 5 weeks. The phytolith morphologies in each assemblage were determined at the outset of the experiment and after 5 weeks. The results show that there are differences in stability between various assemblages. Modern inflorescence wheat phytolith assemblages are more unstable than those from leaves/stems. Burnt assemblages are less stable than unburnt assemblages, and a fossil phytolith assemblage about 3000 years old is more stable than the modern wheat assemblages. The results also show that individual phytolith morphotypes have different stabilities, and as a result of dissolution and abrasion, some morphotypes may resemble others. This study further shows that archaeological and/or paleo-environmental interpretation of phytolith assemblages may change with the assemblage’s state of preservation.     

Formation processes of desiccated and carbonized plant remains – the identification of routine practice

The taphonomic or formation processes of desiccated and carbonized plant remains are reviewed and compared. Both types of assemblage frequently consist of material of mixed origin, but despite a high degree of mixing, the various routes of entry are still identifiable, and it is concluded that archaeological plant assemblages are more robust than often assumed. Case studies where the accurate identification of the formation processes has been critical are examined and guidelines on how to assess the formation processes are presented. It is argued that the coherence of archaeobotanical assemblages is due to the fact that they represent day-to-day routine behavioural practices. As these routine practices are socially and culturally structured, the identification of formation processes of plant remains can help identify social and cultural behaviour and changes therein.     

Trampling experiments at Cova Gran de Santa Linya,Pre-Pyrenees,Spain: their relevance for archaeological fabrics of the Upper–Middle Paleolithic assemblages

The study of fabrics, that is, the analysis of the orientation and slope of archaeological and sedimentary materials associated with the Middle Palaeolithic/Upper Palaeolithic (MP/UP) transition at Cova Gran shows substantial differences. Archaeological assemblages are characterised by greater isotropy in the fabrics than the sedimentary levels within which they are located, indicating that these differences may be generated by anthropic processes. One of the anthropogenic processes associated with horizontal and vertical displacement of archaeological artefacts is trampling and circulation caused by later occupations. In order to evaluate the effect of movement on materials, we undertook experiments simulating geological and archaeological conditions at Cova Gran. The results show that human trampling does not cause major isotropy in fabrics, but arranges archaeological assemblages towards planar or linear materials according to surface geometry. We were not able to replicate the fabric pattern of materials from the archaeological levels of Cova Gran, suggesting that they must be associated with the activities of human occupation at each level.     

Earliest hunters and gatherers of South America

Traditional syntheses of the archaeology of the late Pleistocene period in South America have focused primarily on the peopling of the continent by North American cultural groups and on identifying associations among regional sites. This focus has tended to ignore the widespread culture diversity of the period and the possible effects of different paleolandscapes on human migration and colonization, such as the presence of unglaciated tropical and temperate environments in the northern lowlands, the gateway to the interior. The earliest known cultural assemblages are characterized by various unifacial and bifacial lithic industries that may represent regional processes reminiscent of an Archaic lifeway. The major archaeological sites and associated artifact assemblages are examined in terms of regional and continental patterns of environmental and cultural change. Results suggest that the Pleistocene archaeological record of South America must be explained in its own terms and that the events and processes producing this record either occurred earlier than previously thought or are very different from those in North America.     

The identification of charred archaeological remains of vegetative parenchymous tissue

The biased way in which some inferences may be drawn from archaeobotanical assemblages, due to problems in identification, is briefly discussed. A potentially important class of plant remains, vegetative parenchymous organs, commonly sources of food, are indicated as being such a class rarely identified from archaeological contexts. Their identification based on characters of the plants' anatomy and morphology together with an understanding of the way in which tissues degrade on preservation by charring is suggested. Characters of the charred tissues that make up vegetative parenchymous organs are described in detail. The processes of sorting and identification are then briefly discussed.     

Sources of variation in carnivore tooth-mark frequencies in a modern spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) den assemblage,Amboseli Park,Kenya

Distributions and frequencies of carnivore tooth-marks on large mammal long-bone fragments are commonly used to infer the timing of hominin and carnivore access to prey resources in archaeofaunal assemblages. The strength of these inferences, however, is limited by a broad and currently inexplicable range of tooth-mark frequencies across experimental and archaeological assemblages. Controlling for this variation first requires that the sources be identified. Several sources of variation are examined here in an analysis of tooth-marked bone recovered from a modern spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) den assemblage in Amboseli Park, Kenya. Results indicate that tooth-mark frequencies: (1) depend on fragment size, (2) vary across mammals of different size classes, (3) are highly variable across equivalent portions of different long-bone elements, and (4) on certain long-bone portions are correlated with bone density and can be depressed in archaeological assemblages subjected to density-mediated attrition. Stronger inferences based on tooth-mark frequencies will require that such variation be taken into consideration, and methods for doing so are suggested.     

“Seek and you Shall Find.” How the Analysis of Gendered Patterns in Archaeology can Create False Binaries: a Case Study from Durankulak

The gender structures of the communities of the Late Neolithic and Copper Age in South East Europe have been firmly placed in a binary system by past archaeological analysis. The analysis of cemetery remains has indicated that binaries are expressed through differences in body position and the types of artefacts placed in the grave. However, re-evaluation of evidence from Durankulak cemetery on the Bulgarian Black Sea coast demonstrates that such interpretations may result from the imposition of a modern Western understanding of gender as binary based on sex; these assumptions can lead to the exclusion of data which points to more complex and varied gender relationships. This paper briefly discusses the problems in starting archaeological analyses from an assumed binary in both sex and gender. It is argued that any approach that starts with this binary is likely to be misleading, and that large-scale data sets, such as cemeteries, should be investigated using multivariate statistical techniques to uncover a variety of horizontal and vertical social categories and roles, of which gender may be a part. It demonstrates that in the case of Durankulak, while there are gender differences, there was a great deal of more complexity than a simple male/female division. Some artefacts are exclusively associated with male burials, while female graves have less variety in their assemblages.     

Polarizing Microscopy Identification of Chemical Diagenesis in Archaeological Cementum

Cementum increment analysis can potentially retrieve relatively complete, high-precision seasonality and mortality profiles from archaeological mammalian tooth assemblages. However, cementum exhibits many similarities to bone in composition, histology, ultrastructure, and even microstructure. Consequently, the mineralized dental tissue may be prone to the same processes of post-depositional chemical alteration that affect bone. This article reviews the issues surrounding chemical diagenesis in cementum and presents a new application to archaeological ungulate cementum of a polarizing microscopy technique that has previously been utilized to identify the effects of chemical diagenesis in archaeological bone and human cementum (Geusa et al., 1999; Gilbert, 1989; Watson, 1975; Zeder, 1978). It is argued that the post mortem leaching of collagen and the diagenetic growth of apatite crystallites can develop into banded features that mimic seasonal cementum increments. This pattern of diagenesis is demonstrated in multiple locations on a macroscopically well-preserved Upper Pleistocene-age archaeological tooth, which was previously interpreted by the author to exhibit biogenic seasonal cementum increments (Stutz, 1993; Stutz et al., 1995). It is suggested that if researchers seek to retrieve seasonality and mortality data from archaeological cementum, the microscopy analysis protocol must include screening of a pilot sample for the frequency and extent of chemical diagenesis.     

Ceramics, Ethnohistory, and Ethnography: Locating Meaning in Southern African Iron Age Ceramic Assemblages

For ceramics to be relevant in the Southern African Iron Age, archaeologists must broaden their theoretical base to include social and other contexts when interpreting material culture items such as pottery. Pottery remains critical in understanding cultural dynamics in the region for the past two millennia, but current usage is narrow in scope. Using ethnohistorical data and archaeological examples from South Africa and Zimbabwe, we argue that pottery provides valuable information on the region's Iron Age, if archaeologists address the social meaning of ceramic assemblages. Ceramic production among rural communities provides the basis on which a wide range of social issues are discussed and used to critique pottery recovered from archaeology. Ethnography suggests that ceramic assemblages are context specific, and archaeologists are cautioned against making generic statements on the basis of similarities of vessel shape and decoration motif.     

RESIDUALITY REVISITED

Summary: Residuality has long been recognized as a problem for those interpreting archaeological assemblages, in particular those from urban excavations. This paper explores residuality through the examination of quantified pottery assemblages from a number of British sites. the causes of variation in the level of residuality at particular sites are discussed and general conclusions are drawn about the importance of the different factors isolated.     

Methodological problems in the analysis of fossil non-artifactual wood assemblages from archaeological sites

The analysis of fossil wood fragments is often undertaken in relation to the archaeological excavation of a site. However, such analysis does not yet appear to have the strong methodological foundation that the investigation of many other classes of palaeoenvironmental evidence (e.g. seeds and pollen) have. Consequently, it is difficult to evaluate the value of fossil wood analysis at an archaeological site. Using data regarding non-artifactual wood assemblages at one site in southern Scotland, the relative merits of possible analysis are described and discussed. The results from such analyses tend to fall into two broad groups: (I) those of relatively high reliability, and (2) those of relatively low reliability. The results in the former group are often based on moderately secure methodology and tend to provide relatively non-interpretative information (e.g. species lists). On the other hand, those in the latter group are more often based on insecure interpretive methodology and provide relatively more stimulating information, such as evidence for prehistoric woodland management. There are many reasons for this situation, and these are discussed. In conclusion, it is argued that to increase the reliability of results in the second group (in particular), a full understanding of the taphonomy of non-artifactual fossil wood assemblages is needed, and that once this is available attention can then be paid, as elsewhere in environmental archaeology, to the problems of providing statistically valid samples for analysis.     

Ceramic style analysis in archaeology and ethnoarchaeology: Bridging the analytical gap

A refitting study with a sample of sherds from Broken K Pueblo indicates that at least some of the “patterning” in the assemblage identified by Hill (1970, Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 18) results from unrecognized whole vessels and large conjoinable sherds. It is argued that contemporary stylistic analyses are based on many of the same analytical methods employed in the Broken K study and that research findings of ethnoarchaeology are rarely applied in the analysis of prehistoric ceramics. Despite archaeologists' increasing awareness of formation processes, spurred by ethnoarchaeological research, analytic methods that identify and take into account the effects of these processes on archaeological ceramic assemblages are underdeveloped. Suggestions are offered to resolve this problem, for both archaeological and ethnoarchaeological ceramic analysis, that may permit archaeologists to discover in prehistoric assemblages the same types of relationships identified in systemic assemblages.     

An exploration of character traits and linear measurements for sexing mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) skeletons

The skeletal elements of mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) have proven difficult to sex with statistical confidence due to wide overlap in the body size of the two sexes. We studied a sample of 53 modern mountain gazelle skeletons to determine which character traits and metric measurements best predict sex. The success of the character traits was determined using blind tests while the metrics were examined using discriminant function analysis. The most useful elements include the previously identified horn core, pubis and atlas, but also some new bone portions that preserve well in the archaeological record (e.g., distal tibia, distal metacarpal and metatarsal, and second phalanx). Surprisingly, two elements commonly used in sexing analyses (distal humerus and astragalus) were not among the most effective elements. Although cutting points and discriminant functions for sexing gazelle bone portions are presented here, they do not account for potential body size change and thus are not suited for direct application to archaeological assemblages. Instead, we provide guidelines for application to archaeological gazelle assemblages, most importantly a regression analysis that considers the sex ratios obtained from multiple measurements to predict the sex ratio of archaeological gazelle populations.     

Why are cut mark frequencies in archaeofaunal assemblages so variable? A multivariate analysis

Cut mark frequencies in archaeological faunal assemblages are so variable that their use has recently created some skepticism. The present study analyses this variability using multivariate statistics on a set of 14 variables that involve differential skeletal element representation, fragmentation processes, carnivore ravaging impact, carcass size and tool type. All these variables affect the resulting cut mark frequencies reported in archaeological sites. A large sample of archaeofaunal assemblages has been used for this study. It was concluded that the best estimator of cut mark frequency in any given assemblage is the percentage of cut-marked long bone specimens (probably due to its better preservation than other anatomical areas), which is determined by fragmentation and carnivore ravaging. Carcass size and tool type also play a major role in differences in cut mark frequencies. Fragmentation is also a key variable determining the abundance of cut-marked specimens. It is argued that general cut mark percentages are of limited value, given the number of variables that determine them, and that a more heuristic approach involves quantifying cut marks in a qualitative manner.