Original DocumentsExtracts from The Bursar’s Accounts,Preserved Among The Muniments of Winchester College

This paper challenges the interpretation of late Roman Verulamium which has stood since Frere's excavations in 1955–61. A quantitative analysis of construction work and occupation phases forms the basis of two new interpretative conclusions. First, in contrast to a view which sees urban vigour continuing to the end of the Roman period, it is suggested that the town experienced a sharp decline in both construction and occupation from the early fourth century onwards. Second, the late town is portrayed as radically different in character from that of the second century—a defended ‘post-classical’ outpost of the decaying empire rather than a garden-city of romanizing local gentry.     

Modern ideology and the creation of ancient town planning

This paper examines the historiography of ancient town planning and the Roman city, with particular attention to its origin in the town planning debate of the early twentieth century. It questions the existing dichotomies, ‘civilised'/'uncivilised’, ‘classical'/'barbarian’, ‘urban'/'proto‐urban’, that have characterised this history. Finally, the paper examines the effect of the separation of the academic disciplines of classics and archaeology in Britain upon the history of ancient urbanism.     

Colour and chemical composition in ancient glass: An examination of some roman and wealden glass by means of ultraviolet-visible-infra-red spectrometry and electron microprobe analysis

Glass sherds from the Roman town at Colchester and from the post-mediaeval glasshouse site at Knightons near Dunsfold in Surrey have been investigated by ultraviolet-visible-infra-red spectrometry and by electron microprobe analysis. The glass is coloured by visible absorption bands of iron, cobalt and manganese, whose origins are discussed.     

THE COMPOSITION OF IRON AGE STRUCK 'BRONZE'COINAGE IN EASTERN ENGLAND

EDXRF was used to analyse the composition of 88 Iron Age copper and copper alloy coins excavated from the site of a pre-Roman shrine and Roman temple at Harlow, Essex. Most of the coins are local to the Essex-Hertfordshire region, with a few of Kentish origin. The earliest struck base metal issues were struck from almost pure copper, but from the late first century BC, their composition shows more variety. Particularly interesting are a group of types belonging to the Romanizing phase of Tasciovanus'coinage, which were struck in brass and possibly represent a distinct denomination. Roman coinage and other metalwork imports from the Roman world presumably provided the initial impetus, and the ultimate source of the brass. However, this experiment was relatively short lived. Cunobelinus, who ruled eastern England during the earlier first century AD, mainly employed bronze to strike his abundant base metal coinage. The products of his Colchester mint reveal a consistently different composition from those struck at his unlocated second mint in the Hertfordshire area, although the precise alloy does vary, sometimes within the same type. This suggests that unlike gold and silver issues, the source and purity of the metal used for minting base metal coinage was not always critical.     

The Chester Congress of 1849

Abstract

Two Roman polychrome mosaics, depicting Europa and Orpheus, are preserved in their original settings in a town house of Roman Sparta. Discovered last century, they have been inventoried, but not studied in detail. Probably both were produced by the same local workshop in the third to fourth century, sharing characteristics peculiar to Greek mosaic. They appear to mirror each other. The depiction of Europa near Orpheus occurs rarely in the classical repertory. This collaborative research defines the pictorial originality of each mosaic. Europa, an archaic image, reflects the iconography of the Nereids. Orpheus may have copied a lost painting. The choice of motif and possible symbolic readings are examined. Perhaps the tenets of Orphic thought pervaded the images. Such a combination might bear witness to tastes and attitudes in Greece during the late Roman period.     

An Account of Some Monumental and Wayside Crosses,Still Remaining in the West of Cornwall

The building history of Colchester Castle is reconsidered in the light of previously unpublished evidence from excavations, 1931 to 1977. The Norman castle is seen as a development from a late Saxon villa regalis, constructed in two phases, the first beginning c. 1074 × 1076 (by the crown) and the second c. 1101 (by Eudo Dapifer). It was strengthened in the mid-thirteenth century and maintained into the early fourteenth but thereafter declined, its main function being as a prison. The upper storey of the keep and the southern bailey defences were demolished late in the seventeenth century.     

Analyses of colourless Roman glass from Binchester,County Durham

Forty samples of Roman colourless glass tableware from Binchester, dating from the 1st to mid-3rd centuries AD, were analysed using ICP spectrometry and parallels were sought with similar studies of Roman glass from Colchester and Lincoln [C. Mortimer, M.J. Baxter, Analysis of Samples of Colourless Roman Vessel Glass from Lincoln, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 44/1996, 1996; H.E.M. Cool, J. Price, Roman vessel glass from excavations in Colchester, 1971–1985, Colchester Archaeological Report 8, Colchester Archaeological Trust Ltd. and English Heritage, Colchester, 1995; M.P. Heyworth, M.J. Baxter, H. Cool, Compositional Analysis of Roman Glass from Colchester Essex, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 53/1990, 1990]. Some samples from the Binchester, Colchester and Lincoln (BCL) groups were re-analysed using energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS) and the results were used to compensate for the differences in reproducibility between the ICP data sets, so that these could be directly compared. The majority of the glass from all three sites was similar but some distinct compositional characteristics were identified that were specific to certain types of ware. There were differences in the concentration of lead in the samples, which appear to be to some extent chronological. The compositional data for the glass from Binchester, Colchester and Lincoln were also compared to literature data for various types of natron glass produced in the 1st millennium AD.     

Mid-Cretaceous calcarenite in stone products from the Roman colony of Emona,Regio X (modern Ljubljana,Slovenia)

Over the course of studying stone products from the Roman colony of Emona (Regio X), stratigraphically undefined calcarenite that was used to make simple sepulchral and architectural stone products was detected. The calcarenite used is late Aptian to early Cenomanian in age. The corresponding facies were found in the Lower Flyschoid Formation outcropping near the town of Medvode, within the local radius of Emona. The Roman quarry was likely located in this area near the Sava River. According to the collected data, the quarry was in operation mainly in the 1st century.     

Methods of Palaeodemography: The Case of the Iberian Oppida and Roman Cities in North‐East Spain

Ancient demography is a recurrent topic in archaeology, thanks to new methods and evidence from different surveys and excavations. However, different cultures or periods are studied on their own, without any comparison being made between them and of their population dynamics. The present paper seeks to advance the situation by defining methodologies to allow diachronic comparisons between two different periods and cultures. After setting out a methodological approach, the paper goes on to apply the same to a case study: namely the Roman conquest of north‐east Spain, comparing the demography of the ancient Iberian communities (fourth‐second centuries BCE) to the Roman colonization (first century BCE to first century CE). Roman urbanism is generally supposed to increase the population in a particular territory, but our present evidence refutes this point: a decrease in population is visible in urban or proto‐urban sites from the Iberian to Roman periods, though there is an increase in the rural densities.     

Original Documents

The end of Roman London has too often been discussed using models that are poorly rooted in empirical evidence. This paper utilizes data from archives and commercial contractors to plot the distribution of activity in London at the end of the fourth century. This challenges the notion that much of the Late Roman city was deserted. However, a brief consideration of Early AngloSaxon London and Southwark demonstrates that by the late fifth century the City and Southwark were abandoned.     

Publications

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a fabric study of the late Roman coarse wares (3rd century–6th century A.D.) from the Roman coastal town of Potentia (Porto Recanati) Marche, Italy). The petrographic analysis established the presence of several imported coarse ware classes, originating from the eastern Mediterranean to northern Africa. Of particular interest are the Adriatic common wares, which allow us to examine and define the extent, scale, and configuration of ancient trade within Adriatic Italy. While it is difficult to trace trade routes, items transported as a secondary commodity, like regional coarse wares, can help in reconstructing ancient economic interaction. The burnished coarse ware discussed here documents the ancient N-S trade routes from the Po region to the central Adriatic. Moreover, the identification of a northern Italian ware in central Adriatic Italy shows that this burnished coarse pottery had economic value and was part of a wider distribution network within the Adriatic.     

Julfar and the urbanisation of Southeast Arabia

The fourteenth-sixteenth-century town of Julfar (al-Mataf) in Ras al-Khaimah (UAE) is one of the most fully investigated archaeological sites in the Gulf, having been the subject of seven different excavation projects. Evidence from the published reports, when brought together, provides a detailed and coherent picture of the development of the site from a small fishing community in the mid-fourteenth century to a fully urbanised settlement by the mid-fifteenth century, and then attests to its eventual decline and abandonment by the late sixteenth century.
Julfar was the first example of true urbanism in this part of Arabia, and therefore marks a significant historical turning point. Its development is believed to have been linked to the expanding mercantile economy of Hormuz, but it occurred at the same time as a period of spectacular rural growth in its own immediate hinterland, evidence for which has been produced by archaeological field survey. Together these phenomena suggest the development of a local market economy, perhaps for the first time, which would have had significant implications for the social and economic structure of the area.     

A Speleothem Record of Early British and Roman Mining at Charterhouse,Mendip, England

The laser ablation ICP–MS transect of a speleothem from GB Cave, close to Charterhouse, Mendip Hills, UK, records Pb variations over the past 5 ka. The speleothem record correlates well with the known historical record of lead mining in the district, the principal features of which include: the Roman lead mining peak; the Dark Ages cessation; gradual, episodic revival up to the late 16th century peak; the 17th century collapse and subsequent recovery; and the final short‐lived burst at the end of the 19th century. This correlation supports the assumption that the pre‐Roman lead record also derives from local mining. Thus, this record is the first example of quantifying ancient human mining activity through trace element signature of a speleothem. This record also provides the first solid evidence of significant pre‐Roman mining activity in the Charterhouse region, and the first solid dating of that activity. This pre‐Roman mining can be divided into three main peaks dated to 1800–1500 bc , 1100–800 bc and 350–0 bc .     

On Early Thimbles: A Seventh‐Century‐AD Example from Punta Secca,Sicily, in Context

A copper‐alloy thimble was found in 2010 at Punta Secca, Sicily, in a sealed context datable by coins to the first quarter of the seventh century AD. It has generally been thought that thimbles did not reach the Mediterranean area until the ninth century AD, but at least nine metal examples are in fact attested at various places from contexts datable between the late sixth century and the early ninth. It is suggested that the increasing use of silk in clothing in the Byzantine Empire during the seventh century, probably accompanied by the use for the first time of steel needles which made the use of a finger protector imperative, explains the apparent introduction of thimbles at this time. No securely dated metal thimbles are known from sites of Roman date, except for one at Ephesus of c.AD 100. It is very tentatively suggested that this last example might represent an import from China, where thimbles (and steel needles) are attested from at least the third century BC onwards.     

An analytical study, using inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry, of samian and colour-coated wares from the Roman town at Colchester together with related continental samian wares

Over 200 sherds of samian and colour-coated pottery of late 2nd or early 3rd century date have been analysed by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) emission spectrometry. Most of this material was excavated at Colchester, England; the remainder is related East Gaulish material. Some clay samples were also analysed. The material divides, after multivariate statistical analysis, into 11 clusters. These accord well with known archaeological evidence and suggest assignments of origin where these are uncertain. In particular, the archaeological evidence for a link between Colchester and the Sinzig potters is supported.     

The development of animal husbandry from the Late Iron Age to the end of the Roman period: a case study from South-East Britain

In this paper zooarchaeological evidence from Iron Age and Roman sites in South-East Britain is presented and the results are applied to the continuing debate over culture contact and change following the Roman invasion. Evidence from Heybridge in Essex indicates that there were two stages of livestock development. These may reflect the import of new breeding stock into Britain. Differences between the rate of livestock development at this rural site and the nearby urban centre of Colchester indicate differing mechanisms of animal supply between the two sites. The appearance of very large cattle in Late Roman contexts at Boreham in Essex suggests that improvement of animals continued throughout the Roman occupation and was not merely an initial response to new economic and administrative demands. The biometrical evidence from these three sites is compared with evidence from elsewhere in Europe and the development of livestock during the Roman Period is shown to be complex and varied. The impetus and ideology behind the changes in animal husbandry following the Roman invasion in Britain are explored.     

Notices of Ancient Ornaments and Appliances of Sacred Use

Burial customs described under five headings are traced from the Iron Age through to the end of the Roman period. A final section discusses religious belief as evidenced by burials. Two major periods of change are identified, in the late first century B. C. following Caesar's expeditions, and in the second half of the fourth century A.D. In between these the treatment of burials suggests a long period of stability. The impact of Christianity on burial practices is assessed.     

Anchoring Pontifical Authority: A Reconsideration of the Papal Employment of the Title Pontifex Maximus

It is a common assumption that the title of supreme priesthood or pontifex maximus is included in the official papal titulature, and it has been supposed that the Roman bishop adopted it from the Roman emperor in late antiquity. In fact, however, it was probably not until the fifteenth century that the designation was first used by the papacy, and it has continued to be part of papal representation ever since. The title was deeply rooted in the Roman imperial past. At several stages in papal history the papal agency felt the need to draw back (again) on this ancient, traditional title and managed to successfully (re‐)introduce the title by anchoring it in the cultural biography of the papacy.     

On Some Remains of the Work of William of Wykham,at Windsor Castle

Scholarly opinion on the character and timing of the end of Roman Britain remains deeply divided. The evidence presented by those favouring a ‘long chronology’ is seriously flawed. ‘Continuity’ or ‘survival’ of Roman Britain is claimed because early medieval activity is attested on some former Roman sites and some early medieval artefacts are of Roman type. But Roman Britain was part of a ‘world system’ with a distinctive and rich archaeological assemblage, and once terms are properly defined and material analysed quantitatively, the argument for fifth-century continuity collapses. The archaeological evidence shows that after a long process of decline beginning in the third century, Roman Britain had ended by c. A.D. 400.     

Law,memory, and priestly office in Rome,c.500

This essay sets the development of Christian thinking about law and clerical office in the wider context of the discussion of office in the later Roman empire. It offers a reassessment of the work of Dionysius Exiguus, a well‐known translator from Greek into Latin of the Acts of the fourth‐ and fifth‐century church councils, and a compiler of papal decretals. The essay attempts to place Dionysius’ work in its immediate Roman context, in the context of fifth‐century canonical activity, especially in North Africa, and in the more general context of the political culture of office‐holding in the late Roman polity. Central here is the tension between bureaucratic regulation and autocratic room for manoeuvre. Dionysius did not attempt fully to resolve this tension, though he did attempt to contain it.