Demography and the Palaeolithic Archaeological Record

Demographic change has recently re-emerged as a key explanation for socio-cultural changes documented in the prehistoric archaeological record. While the majority of studies of Pleistocene demography have been conducted by geneticists, the archaeological records of the Palaeolithic should not be ignored as a source of data on past population trends. This paper forms both a comprehensive synthesis and the first critical review of current archaeological research into Palaeolithic demography. Within prevailing archaeological frameworks of dual inheritance theory and human behavioural ecology, I review the ways in which demographic change has been used as an explanatory concept within Palaeolithic archaeology. I identify and discuss three main research areas which have benefitted from a demographic approach to socio-cultural change: (1) technological stasis in the Lower Palaeolithic, (2) the Neanderthal-Homo sapiens transition in Europe and (3) the emergence of behavioural modernity. I then address the ways in which palaeodemographic methods have been applied to Palaeolithic datasets, considering both general methodological concerns and the challenges specific to this time period. Finally, I discuss the ability of ethnographic analogy to aid research into Palaeolithic demography.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AMBERS FROM NORTHERN ITALY: AN FTIR–DRIFT STUDY OF PROVENANCE BY COMPARISON WITH THE GEOLOGICAL AMBER DATABASE*

European geological ambers of five different localities and types, and Italian geological ambers from seven different deposits have been studied with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and diffuse‐reflectance infrared Fourier transform (DRIFT). Ambers from several localities have been characterized for the first time. The research aims to create a database of European ambers, containing both FTIR and DRIFT data. The FTIR spectra are easily comparable with the data commonly available in the literature, whereas DRIFT analyses are shown to be more useful to characterize the archaeological finds. The provenance of several archaeological ambers from northern and southern Italy, dating from the Middle Bronze Age to the Iron Age, is assessed on the basis of the developed database. Of the 35 analysed archaeological objects, all but five are composed of Baltic succinite amber.     

The Definition of Spatial Units in Middle Palaeolithic Sites: The Hearth-Related Assemblages

This paper deals with hearth-related accumulations in Middle Palaeolithic sites. Spatial behaviour is a key to understanding the cultural capabilities of ancient hominids. Ethnoarchaeological and archaeological research has shown that hearth-related assemblages are a basic feature in the spatial behaviour of modern and prehistoric hunter–gatherers. In this paper, we propose a methodology for analysing archaeological accumulations and study a series of hearth-related assemblages from the Abric Romanı́ Middle Palaeolithic site (Capellades, Spain). We also analyse the degree of contemporaneity between the different activity episodes documented at each archaeological accumulation. Our results suggest that the characteristics of domestic areas in this site are not substantially different from those observed in ethnoarchaeological contexts and Upper Palaeolithic sites.     

THE AMBER OF EL DORADO: CLASS IB ARCHAEOLOGICAL AMBERS ASSOCIATED WITH LAGUNA GUATAVITA*

Laguna Guatavita, a crater‐like lake located in central Colombia, was used by pre‐Columbian Muisca people for a variety of socio‐religious ceremonies, many of which involved casting offerings into the lake. Of these, the installation of a new ‘king’ became the basis of the El Dorado myth that was carried back to Europe by 16th century conquistadores. In the present study, beads collected from Laguna Guatavita during a late 19th/early 20th century attempt to recover valuables from the lake bed, have been subjected to geochemical analysis. Results establish that these artefacts have been fabricated from Class Ib amber. Class Ib ambers have not previously been reported in either the geological or archaeological records of Central or South America, and their existence in this context implies that the Muisca people had access to a unique local or regional source of amber, knowledge of which has subsequently been lost.     

The use of different amber sources in Italy during the Bronze Age: new archaeometric data

The production of amber ornaments occurred in Italy during the Eneolithic (E)–Early Bronze Age (EBA), although very few beads from the Italian peninsula have been found and analysed. The number of data available for provenience study of Bronze Age ambers is larger, but still a precise picture of when and to what extent the local sources of amber were exploited is lacking. In the present work, 22 amber finds from six Sicilian sites have been studied and analysed by infrared spectroscopy, in particular with DRIFT (diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transformed) analyses. The amber samples are dated between the Eneolithic and the Final Bronze Age–Early Iron Age and are from the collections of the P. Orsi Museum, in Syracuse (Sicily). The data show that only simetite was used in South Italy in the Late Eneolithic (LE)–EBA. In the Bronze Age, the exploitation of simetite shows different intensity in different chronological phases. The results are discussed in comparison with the information available for coeval European ambers.     

Defining and Characterizing Archaeological Quartzite: Sedimentary and Metamorphic Processes in the Lithic Assemblages of El Habario and El Arteu (Cantabrian Mountains,Northern Spain)

Quartzite was the second most‐often used lithic raw material in Europe in the Palaeolithic. However, this rock has not been characterized fully from the geo‐archaeological point of view. This study characterizes, defines and determines types of quartzite in northern Spain through a methodology that integrates petrography, digital image processing and X‐ray fluorescence. As a methodological foundation for the characterization of the material, it aims to open the possibility of discovering mechanisms of mobility, selection and management of quartzite by prehistoric societies. The types determined, based on the petrogenesis of the material, enable a better understanding of the archaeological sites of El Arteu and El Habario in the context of northern Spain in the Middle Palaeolithic.     

Archaeology and in situ Preservation in Canton Thurgau,Switzerland

Canton Thurgau (approximately 1000 km²) is situated in the north-east of Switzerland. Its diverse landscape is notable for its hills, the Thur Valley, and Lake Constance. The Archaeology Department of Canton Thurgau is responsible for its archaeology. The archaeological map is quite complete and has over one thousand sites, ranging from the Palaeolithic to post-medieval periods. Particularly remarkable are the prehistoric lakeside dwellings (among them, four UNESCO World Heritage Sites) and the Roman sites, some of which have extraordinarily good conditions for preservation. The vicus Tasgetium (Eschenz) has produced one of the largest collections of Roman wooden objects and features found anywhere in the world. The Archaeology Department of Canton Thurgau conducts field surveys, excavations and scientific research. Its collections and archive are also of great importance. A major goal is to preserve the numerous sites of the canton in situ. In sensitive shore areas, where erosion (wave action, shipping etc.) threatens the exposed prehistoric cultural layers of the pile dwellings, measures are being taken to cover the areas and keep destruction at bay. These interventions are accompanied by monitoring. But numerous Roman and medieval ruins have also been restored according to the latest standards and thus prevented from gradual destruction. Thanks to zoning plans and a close working relationship with the local authorities, timely intervention can take place when sites are threatened. The results of the archaeological research are conveyed to the public and professional circles through the Museum for Archaeology and by way of popular and subject-specific publications.     

Roman amber identified as Siegburgite

A small amber fragment from the period of Roman occupation of Numantia (Garray, Spain) was characterised by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy and optical microscopy. The material was found to be a polystyrene-like material, which is a very rare fossil resin known as Siegburgite or class III amber. Until now, this material was found in Europe only at two sites, both localised in Germany, and it is the first time that this type of amber was identified in wrought archaeological artefacts. The discussion includes the applicability of the method to distinguish false from true and amber of different origins, its use and trading as well as a hypothesis for a transport route. The study highlights the need for a more systematic study of archaeological amber remains. The finding also proves the exploitation and trading of local, non-Baltic amber deposits throughout the Roman Empire.     

Coal used for Fuel at Two Prehistoric Sites in Southern France: Les Canalettes (Mousterian) and Les Usclades (Mesolithic)

Charcoal analysis—the study of charcoal from archaeological contexts—is designed to reconstruct palaeoenvironment and human use of wood. At two prehistoric sites in the Causse du Larzac (France)—Les Canalettes (Mousterian) and Les Usclades (Mesolithic)—charcoal analysis has revealed specimens whose anatomical structure was abnormally compressed in transverse section. The authors conducted experiments to determine how the compression could have occurred. The result was the first evidence for lignite in Palaeolithic settlements. Lignite fragments in a hearth suggest local Palaeolithic people used it for fuel. The lignite could have come from major coal outcrops within 7 to 15 km of the sites. Coal use is otherwise unknown for Palaeolithic cultures in France, and its use at Les Canalettes during the last glacial is the oldest recorded instance. Coal may have been used for fuel primarily because wood became scarce during the last glacial.     

Bridging the gap: a terrestrial view of shallow marine sequences and the importance of the transition zone

The shallow shelf area around the coast of the UK contains an important record of maritime and, potentially prehistoric archaeology. Increasingly this area is the focus of anthropogenic activity such as gravel extraction and cable laying in advance of which it is increasingly common practice to investigate the archaeological potential of the sequences/regions. Well structured approaches have been developed for the investigation of maritime wrecks and the latest Prehistoric remains, however the Palaeolithic archaeological potential of these regions is less clear. This is partly due to the depth of burial of archaeological material and the rather more fragmentary nature of the sequences present. Where consideration of the Palaeolithic archaeology has been undertaken, models and presumptions derived from terrestrial situations have been extrapolated across the near shore zone, where often there is no data, and into the maritime area. Within the maritime area these models have been used to interpret seismic data and scarce offshore core data for making regional reconstructions. Here we consider some of the issues in reconstruction and highlight the difficultly in extrapolating between terrestrial and maritime situations without careful investigation in the transition zone. In particular we argue that rather than assuming similarities between patterns of landscape evolution between the on- and off-systems we should anticipate dissimilarity of patterns, missing sequences and different landscape formation processes particularly in those areas of the shallow shelf area formerly occupied by drainage basins during sea level low-stands.     

Pleistocene connexions between Africa and Southwest Asia: an archaeological perspective

This paper investigates the archaeological evidence for direct prehistoric connexions between Southwest Asia and Africa during the Palaeolithic period. The importance of the ‘Levantine Corridor’ bridging the two continents is stressed in describing the dispersal ofHomo erectus. The continental bridge could have been through the Nile Valley during the Late Acheulian and the emergence of earlyHomo sapiens. Upper Palaeolithic and especially Epi-Palaeolithic dispersal during the terminal Pleistocene are discussed. The role of Egyptian-Levantine connexions in the context of the complex situation which led to sedentism is stressed.     

The chemical identification of baltic amber at the Celtic oppidum Staré Hradisko in Moravia

The Celtic oppidum Staré Hradisko north of Brno in Moravia, SSR, has long been noted for its wealth of archaeological amber artifacts. Since there are several substantial deposits of fossil resins in the immediate vicinity of the site, it has been an open question whether the settlement was a centre of exploitation and exportation of these local raw materials, or whether it was an entrepôt of Baltic amber on its way to southern and southeastern Europe.Because of extensive weathering, many of the amber finds at Staré Hradisko cannot be identified by infra-red spectroscopy. A new analytical method, which determines the amount of succinic acid by means of gas chromatography, has been developed to show that the amber of Staré Hradisko is, in fact, of the Baltic variety called succinite.     

The chert abundance ratio (CAR): a new parameter for interpreting Palaeolithic raw material procurement

Raw material provenance and procurement studies are an essential research line to infer landscape exploitation, mobility dynamics and territorial management among prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups. This paper proposes an original and intuitive method, the chert abundance ratio, aimed at quantifying lithic resource occurrence in the landscape while considering the geological natural factors of an area (chert-bearing formation extent, thickness, occurrence index, size and chert content). The resource availability can be statistically compared to any archaeological assemblage distribution to define the procurement strategies, whether generalist or selective, and the mobility patterns. The study area, the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula, focused in the Prades Mountains, represents a regional scenario with high chert disposal shared by several Late Upper Palaeolithic occupations. The discrimination of the procurement areas is used as a parameter for outlining the foraging radius and the territorial range, contributing to an understanding of several aspects of the settlement, such as site functions, occupation length or intensity and group size.     

ANALYSIS OF EUROPEAN AMBER BY CARBON-13 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY

Amber, a class of fossil resins, comprises largely terpenoid components. The structure of the major, insoluble portion has not been defined previously. We report the analysis of European amber by carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy directly on solid samples. Two major types are defined, depending on the appearance of the alkene resonances. Baltic amber (succinite), along with other northern ambers such as gedanite, has a pronounced resonance from an exomethylene group. The southerly ambers (rumanite, schraufite, walchowite, delatynite and true simetites) lack the exomethylene resonances. The succinite group gives spectra consistent with a labdane-type precursor and the rumanite-like ambers give spectra consistent with an abietane-type precursor. These results are best explained by at least two different palaeobotanical sources of the fossil resins.     

Bronze and Iron Age Amber Artifacts in Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina

Abstract

The question as to whether or not Yugoslavia played a role in the Bronze Age amber trade to Greece has traditionally been answered negatively because of the scarcity of amber finds in that country. Amber finds that have come to light as a result of more intensive exploration after World War II have been thought to be of local origin by some Yugoslav scholars. Spectroscopic analysis of 35 archaeological amber artifacts from the Yugoslav provinces of Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina of the Bronze and Iron Age shows 31 of them to be of imported Baltic amber. The finds are discussed in their archaeological and geographic contexts as a first step towards re-assessing the place of the Eastern Adriatic area in the southward movement of amber.     

Rabbits as Food at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic at Molí del Salt (Catalonia,Spain)

Many factors have been causally linked to the diversification of hunting during the European Palaeolithic: declining supplies of high‐ranked prey, considerable human demographic growth, reduced residential mobility, larger populations of ubiquitous small mammals and significant technological developments. However, small prey exploitation was not uniform: the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus ) is the most frequent species in the Upper Palaeolithic archaeological record of the Iberian Peninsula – south and Mediterranean area – and Southern France. This is demonstrated at Molí del Salt, an Upper Palaeolithic site located at Vimbodí (Catalonia, Spain), whose mammal fauna stands out for the predominance of rabbits [91% of minimum number of individuals (n = 136)]. We analysed the faunal remains from one level [A^sup (c. 12 700–13 000 cal BP)] in order to identify the agent responsible for the faunal accumulation, and to reconstruct aspects of procurement and consumption that shed light on Palaeolithic subsistence strategies in the Northeast Iberian Peninsula. Our results indicate that human agency rather than carnivore activity was responsible for the bone accumulation at Molí del Salt. We identified all the stages in the consumption sequence from skinning to ingestion. We argue that the rabbits were mostly harvested during summer or winter or both seasons. Clearly, the European rabbit was a target species for the human groups which lived at Molí del Salt providing meat, and skin. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lithic production,site formation and Middle Palaeolithic palimpsest analysis: in search of human occupation episodes at Abric del Pastor Stratigraphic Unit IV (Alicante,Spain)

We present the results of an exercise in Middle Palaeolithic palimpsest analysis geared toward the identification of human occupation episodes. It is based on a combined reading of the archaeosedimentary deposit and the archaeological record of Stratigraphic Unit IV from Abric del Pastor (Alcoy, Alicante, Spain), chronologically framed within MIS 4–5. A study of site formation processes coupled with archaeostratigraphic analysis of the lithic record incorporating Raw Material Units (RMU) and refits, as well as with combustion features and faunal remains enabled identification a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 6 human occupation episodes within lithostratigraphic units IVa, IVb and IVc. Through our data it reaches a high resolution temporal frame close to the ethnographic time scale, which constitutes a significant contribution for the knowledge of human occupations types and landscape use in the Mediterranean rim of the Iberian Peninsula during Middle Palaeolithic.     

Taphonomic analysis of leporid remains obtained from modern Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) scats

Distinguishing leporid bones accumulated by diurnal raptors, owls, mammals and humans is essential to understand not only past human subsistence activities but also past ecology. This is particularly relevant in Iberian Palaeolithic sites where leporid remains usually constitute the most abundant taxon. As far as terrestrial mammal carnivores are concerned, the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) would be the main leporid predator in the Iberian Peninsula. Up until now its contribution as a rabbit bone accumulator in archaeological sites has never been properly assessed. In order to investigate the taphonomic signature of this predator the analysis of 33 samples of modern Iberian lynx scats was carried out. Results show that leporid remains consumed by this carnivore appear very fragmented and exhibit a strong degree of corrosion digestion. Cranial elements are most abundant followed by long bones. Whereas there seem to be clear differences in relation to breakage and digestion alteration caused by owls, some of the patterns obtained are closest to those established with diurnal raptors.     

Prehistoric Investigations in Cantabrian Spain

Abstract

The rich Paleolithic record from Cantabrian Spain has long been interpreted in light of the phylogenetic, chronological scheme developed largely in the Périgord region of SW France, despite important differences in industries, environments, and faunas. This paper outlines the development of prehistoric research in Cantabria from its beginnings a century ago to the present, from the early work of establishing a regional chronology to the on-going attempts to understand and explain the changing regional adaptations of Pleistocene and early Post-Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. Cantabria is usually treated only in passing in syntheses of the prehistory of Western Europe, and its extensive literature is far less widely known than that of SW France. We hope in part to remedy the situation by providing a concise regional overview and an extensive bibliography of classic and modern references.

Preliminary conclusions from archaeological investigations and allied paleoenvironmental research by members of the La Riera Paleoecological Project are also discussed. The La Riera Project is an example of a modern, problem-oriented regional approach to the study of prehistoric human adaptation. It was designed to generate and test hypotheses about Late and Post-Pleistocene ecosystems in Cantabrian Spain. These hypotheses examine the relationships among habitat selection, site location, and climatic change, test for periodicity in prehistoric occupation, and examine patterns of covariance in artifact and faunal debris categories with the objective of isolating changes in adaptation recoverable from the 12,000 year record at the La Riera cave, and at other sites of comparable antiquity in the Cantabrian zone. Preliminary results define patterns of site-functional variation at La Riera related to prehistoric activity sets. These patterns appear to cut across the culture/stratigraphic units upon which much Upper Paleolithic research in western Europe is based.     

The Quaternary fossil record of the genus Testudo in the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeological implications and diachronic distribution in the western Mediterranean

This paper explores the presence of tortoise remains and its meaning in Palaeolithic archaeological contexts. We focus on two topics: (1) the presence or absence of the genus Testudo from the Early Pleistocene to the Holocene in SW Europe; and (2) the relationship between Testudo and the palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental conditions diachronically. In order to address this objective, we collected published and unpublished data from different sites on the eastern Iberian Peninsula. The results obtained by this study demonstrate that Testudo hermanni was the only tortoise present in this area until recent times and its presence in archaeological sites is almost always related to anthropic activities. Finally, the disappearance of Testudo from archaeological sites in some areas is related to climatic changes and events that occurred during the last stages of the Pleistocene.