Firewood economy during the 4th millennium BC at Lake Clairvaux,Jura, France

Abstract

This paper presents the results of charcoal analyses from two waterlogged sites located at Lake Clairvaux in the French Jura and dated to the period between 3700–3500 BC. The economy of firewood intended for domestic use was characterised in accordance with the spatial organisation of the sites on the lakeshore, the economic context and the environment. Because gathering modes mainly depend on the available biomass and resource proximity, charcoal spectra are representative of the exploited woodland. However, as firewood gathering is a major and vital activity, the Neolithic societies established a firewood economy closely linked to their social organisation and way of life and to the environment.     

Mesolithic domestic sheep in West Mediterranean Europe

Domestic ovicaprine specimens, some attributed specifically to Ovis aries L., have been recovered at two Mesolithic sites in the western Languedoc region of France, and two sites in southeastern France. The sites are typical late Mesolithic occupations, firmly dated between 7300 BP and 8000 BP, and stratigraphically precede the appearance of other domestic animals, cultivated plants, pottery, and the establishment of settled villages in their regions. They seem to represent early steps in the adoption of animal husbandry by hunter-gatherer societies in the western Mediterranean. Evidence from the Aude valley sites is presented for the gradual development of animal herding over a period of 1000 years or more, which spans the Mesolithic-Neolithic boundary. The evidence suggests that indigenous Mesolithic societies may have played a formative role in the development of settled farming communities in this area, and that the availability of domestic species may not have led rapidly to major changes in settlement, economy and society.     

Coal used for Fuel at Two Prehistoric Sites in Southern France: Les Canalettes (Mousterian) and Les Usclades (Mesolithic)

Charcoal analysis—the study of charcoal from archaeological contexts—is designed to reconstruct palaeoenvironment and human use of wood. At two prehistoric sites in the Causse du Larzac (France)—Les Canalettes (Mousterian) and Les Usclades (Mesolithic)—charcoal analysis has revealed specimens whose anatomical structure was abnormally compressed in transverse section. The authors conducted experiments to determine how the compression could have occurred. The result was the first evidence for lignite in Palaeolithic settlements. Lignite fragments in a hearth suggest local Palaeolithic people used it for fuel. The lignite could have come from major coal outcrops within 7 to 15 km of the sites. Coal use is otherwise unknown for Palaeolithic cultures in France, and its use at Les Canalettes during the last glacial is the oldest recorded instance. Coal may have been used for fuel primarily because wood became scarce during the last glacial.     

CHARCOAL ANALYSIS and the VEGETATIONAL EVOLUTION of NORTH-WEST PORTUGAL

Summary: The palaeoenvironment of north-west Portugal is investigated from the late Bronze Age to Roman times. This research is based on the analysis of charcoal from seven archaeological sites. the results contain important information for a better understanding of the vegetational environment of man during this period. Man-environment relations are also examined.     

木炭在考古学研究中的应用

利用考古发掘出土的木炭可以重建考古遗址周围的环境,重建植物群,探索遗址的居民与自然界植被的关系,寻找有关古人类的信息。该对木炭在考古学研究中的可行性、必要性及取样与鉴定方法进行了简要的概括,并以研究实例进一步说明木炭的鉴定过程,对拓宽我国科技考古研究方法有一定的意义。     

X-ray microtomographic imaging of charcoal

We assess the potential of X-ray microtomography as a tool for the non-destructive, three-dimensional examination of the internal structure of charcoal. Microtomographic analysis of a series of charcoals produced by the experimental pyrolysis of pine wood at temperatures from 300 and 600 °C in nitrogen only and in nitrogen mixed with 2% oxygen indicates that, despite substantial shrinkage, observed porosity, pore size and pore connectivity are all increased by pyrolysis and also by chemical oxidation. Analysis of a number of altered and unaltered archaeological and geological charcoals has demonstrated the capacity of the technique to identify and map the distribution of authigenic mineral contamination within charcoal fragments. The results are of significance to radiocarbon dating in that they provide insights into the mechanisms by which charcoal can be contaminated by extraneous carbon in the natural environment.     

Morphological,chemical and physical changes during charcoalification of wood and its relevance to archaeological contexts

Wood exposed to a heat source can be transformed into charcoal if subject to conditions of carbonisation (in the absence of air) or charring (in restricted air). Charcoal recovered from archaeological sites can yield fundamental information to our understanding of human economic and cultural development over time and (ecological) setting. This work describes the morphological (anatomy, degree of shrinkage), physical (reflectance) and chemical (elemental, molecular composition) properties of charcoal in relation to heat source and wood variables. In this study charcoal and charcoal fuel were experimentally produced whereby temperature (160–1200 °C), time of exposure (2–1440 min), heating rate (high and low) and wood type (angiosperm and conifer) were varied. The results show that charcoal, often described as an inert, black material, has different chemical and physical properties in relation to the investigated variables. By using these different properties it is possible to distinguish between the different types of fires (domestic and industrial) exploited by humans in the past. Morphological analyses and reflectance measurements are effective tools for this purpose and can be used in wood exposed to temperatures of 300 °C and above—temperatures which are relevant to archaeological research. Angiosperm and conifer wood react in different ways when exposed to heat and thus the taxonomic identity of archaeological material needs to be known. Chemical analyses can be used for wood exposed to temperatures below 400 °C whereas elemental analyses of the carbon content can be used for wood exposed to temperatures up to a maximum of 650 °C.     

Man and Vegetation in Southeastern Brazil during the Late Holocene

Despite the great interest shown by archaeologists in the environment of Brazilian fisher–gatherer–hunter populations and their diet, little is known. Desiccated plant remains are rarely recovered in these archaeological sites, but charcoal, an invaluable source of palaeoenvironmental information, is usually abundant. Six shell-mounds from the southeastern coast of Rio de Janeiro State (Brazil) were studied. Anthracological analysis of over 15,500 charcoal fragments showed that this region was covered by different plant associations during the Late Holocene, and that no significant variations affected the vegetation during this period. Palaeoethnological observations suggest that the random gathering of dead wood supplied most of the wood fuel used by man. Gathering of plant food was certainly much more important to these populations than it has been previously thought. The great number of carbonized palm fruit shells, seeds and monocotyledon tubers found testifies to their importance on human diet.     

Dating Ancient Burial Mounds in Denmark – Revealing Problematic Ancient Charcoal

The National Museum of Denmark and the Department of Geography at the University of Copenhagen have collaborated on a project investigating burial mounds near early Medieval churches. The aim was to identify a possible continuity in cult sites across the shift to Christianity in the late Viking Age. Charcoal samples from 18 mounds were radiocarbon dated but the results showed they were far older than expected. Control dating undertaken on burial mounds of known age confirmed that charcoal in the mound fill can at least be up to 3000 years older than the mound itself. As charcoal can survive in the surface soil layer for millennia, in spite of ploughing, bioturbation and frost, it may also dominate the charcoal pool of the grass or heather turfs used in the mound construction. Therefore, the article concludes, charcoal cannot be used to securely date archaeological features built with turfs and it is important to be aware of the possible presence of very old charcoal when selecting material for dating archaeological features, even those which otherwise would be judged unaffected by material from earlier archaeological periods.     

The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites

In archaeological literature, the study of trees and wood remains is a topic of relatively marginal interest, especially compared to texts on crops and human–animal relations. However, charcoal is the most frequent botanical remain found in archaeological sites. Charcoal analysis can therefore play a major role in the development of studies in both landscape and palaeoethnobotanical reconstruction. The majority of the archaeological charcoal assemblages reflect the exploitation of wood as an energy source (fuel). The archaeological study of firewood selection has been predominantly developed from “eco-utilitarian” or “subsistence economy” perspectives, but has not yet considered fuel collection and use as one of the most enduring categories of human–environment interactions, nor has archaeology looked into its potential as a source of empirical information on past perceptions of, and interactions with, ancient landscapes. The aim of this paper is to expand previous archaeological work on the interpretation of charcoal macro-remains through the study of firewood collection as a historically constituted, socially mediated and archaeologically observable landscape practice. In order to achieve this, we present an ethnoarchaeological case study from the Fang society of Equatorial Guinea (central Africa) aimed at gaining a better understanding of the complex interactions between cultural, ecological and economic variables in firewood collection strategies.     

Quantifying woodland resource usage and selection from Neolithic to post Mediaeval times in the Irish Midlands

The antiquity and context (site or feature type) are the two principal factors that act as a framework for interpreting charcoal and wood data from archaeological sites in the recreation of past woodland environments. This research addresses these parameters through the analysis of over 18,000 charcoal fragments from 57 archaeological excavations carried out along a 61?km road scheme in the midland region of Ireland. Observations on spatial vegetation dynamics and woodland resource patterns are also reported on. The data were analysed through percentage frequency and multivariate analyses. The results reveal woodland resource usage in terms of wood types selected for use as fuel or as structural wood as well as patterns of change and variability in taxonomic composition in relation to site types, feature types and time periods. Selection was found to be low in prehistoric times and in particular at burnt mound sites/fulachta fiadh but became increasingly important as time progressed. This has important implications when charcoal from archaeological settings is used in environmental reconstructions.     

Archaeobotanical inference of Bronze Age land use and land cover in the eastern Mediterranean

Charcoal and charred seeds at five Bronze Age archaeological sites discern ancient land use in the eastern Mediterranean. Seed frequencies of orchard crops, annual cereals and pulses, and wild or weedy plants are used to characterize plant utilization at different archaeological sites on the island of Cyprus, in the Rift Valley of Jordan, and in the Jabbul Plain and along the upper Euphrates River valley in Syria. Seed to charcoal ratios provide proxies to determine the relative usage of dung versus wood for fuel across the ancient Mediterranean landscape. Greater charcoal and lower charred seed values are interpreted to represent a wooded environment, while higher amounts of charred seeds and minimal wood charcoal suggest a much great use of dung as a fuel source. Interestingly, Politiko-Troullia (Cyprus, Cypriot archaeological sites are, by convention, named for the nearest modern village (Politiko), followed by an italicized toponym (Troullia) referring to the plot of land that incorporates the site) has the lowest seed to charcoal ratio, suggesting its residents primarily burned wood and that the landscape surrounding Troullia remained relatively wooded during the Bronze Age. In contrast, villagers at Tell el-Hayyat (Jordan) utilized a mixture of wood and dung, in contrast to Tell Abu en-Ni’aj (Jordan), and especially Umm el-Marra and Tell es-Sweyhat (Syria), where inhabitants relied solely on dung fuel. Comparative analysis and interpretation of seed and charcoal evidence thus illustrates the variety of fuel use strategies necessitated by the dynamic and diverse Bronze Age landscapes of the Eastern Mediterranean.     

Chronology during the Bronze Age in the archaeological site Tell Qubr Abu al-‘Atiq, Syria

Archaeosediments are deposits with a direct or indirect anthropogenic component. They provide useful information about past human activities and interaction with the environment. When other materials, such as pottery, are present in archaeosediment layers, the combination of TL ages from pottery and OSL ages from sediments can provide complete data about the occupation and evolution of an archaeological setting. In Mesopotamia, tells are mounds formed by the debris of human occupation and the accumulation of muddy sediments mainly due to the decomposition of mud bricks in ancient towns. Many other materials such as pottery fragments, bones and charcoal can be found in the sediment layers. The combination of OSL, TL and radiocarbon ages can be very useful in the case of the Bronze Age Period in Syria, allowing the occupation sequence of such archaeological sites to be reconstructed. Tell Qubr Abu al-’Atiq, is located on the left bank of the Middle Euphrates River (Syria). The archaeological artefacts found in the sediment layers (pottery) collected during excavations in two areas of the site, indicated the occupation of the tell during the Early and Late Bronze Age by typological pottery classification. The radiocarbon ages of charcoal indicate that human occupation fits the archaeological hypothesis, providing an older and maximum occupation period between 2800 and 2300 BC and a younger period between 1400 and 900 BC. OSL dating of sediments shows ages younger than charcoal, while TL ages of pottery are generally older than sediment and charcoal ages. This can be explained as the different materials correspond to different events. The charcoal and pottery correspond to occupation periods, while sediments correspond to the further destruction of the site.     

Alkali extraction of archaeological and geological charcoal: evidence for diagenetic degradation and formation of humic acids

Charcoal forms a crucial source of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data, providing a record of cultural activities, past climatic conditions and a means of chronological control via radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating. Key to this is the perceived resistance of charcoal to post-depositional alteration, however recent research has highlighted the possibility for alteration and degradation of charcoal in the environment. An important aspect of such diagenesis is the potential for addition of exogenous “humic acids’ (HAs), to affect the accuracy of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions based upon chemical analyses of HA-containing charcoal. However the release of significant quantities of HA from apparently pristine charcoals raises the question whether some HA could be derived via diagenetic alteration of charcoal itself. Here we address this question through comparison of freshly produced charcoal with samples from archaeological and geological sites exposed to environmental conditions for millennia using elemental (C/H/O) and isotopic (δ¹³C) measurements, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and proton Liquid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (¹H NMR). The results of analyses show that the presence of highly carboxylated and aromatic alkali-extractable HA in charcoal from depositional environments can often be attributable to the effects of post-depositional processes, and that these substances can represent the products of post-depositional diagenetic alteration in charcoal.     

Identifying archaeological wood stack charcoal production sites using geophysical prospection: magnetic characteristics from a modern wood stack charcoal burn site

Charcoal making was a common process in the woodlands of Britain for many centuries. However, historic ‘wood stack’ production sites are difficult to identify. This paper tests the hypothesis that geophysical survey is an appropriate method for the discovery and identification of archaeological charcoal making sites. A traditional wood stack charcoal kiln was constructed in Low Staindale, Dalby Forest, near Pickering, North Yorkshire, to investigate the charcoaling process and the effect of low-temperature carbonisation on the magnetic properties of the soil underlying the kiln. The results from temperature monitoring (within and beneath the charcoal stack) throughout the charcoaling process, geophysical surveys across the charcoal kiln platform, and laboratory analysis of soil and ash samples, are presented. The degree to which the magnetic properties of the ground beneath the charcoal kiln had been enhanced as a consequence of this low-temperature process is discussed. Whilst some magnetic enhancement to the soil beneath the kiln platform was recorded, enhancement appears to be the result of contamination from the wood stack sealing material rather than the effect of heat transfer resulting from the charcoaling process. The results suggest that whilst historic wood stack charcoal production sites are likely to remain an enigmatic and under-reported feature in the archaeological landscape, geophysical prospection does have the potential for identification of these sites.     

Evaluating prehistoric finds of Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum in north-western and central Europe with an emphasis on the first Neolithic finds in Northern Germany

The swollen basal internodes of the grass species Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum (tuber oat grass) are recorded here for the first time for Neolithic Germany. These charred bulbs occurred in the Late Neolithic soil mantle of the megalithic tomb of Albersdorf-Brutkamp LA 5. They are interpreted as most probably originating from the natural vegetation on and around the grave mound. The bulbs were possibly charred in the course of a ritual fire. However, their use as gathered plants and their intentional deposition in a secondary burial ritual during the Late Neolithic cannot be excluded with any certainty. Identification criteria for Arrhenatherum bulbs as well as the ecological requirements of the species are introduced here. Furthermore, prehistoric bulb finds from north-western and central Europe, and different interpretations concerning the occurrence of Arrhenatherum in different archaeological contexts, are discussed. The compilation of finds from literature and excavation reports shows that bulbs of Arrhenatherum were found rather infrequently in the Neolithic. Most commonly, charred bulbs of A. elatius var. bulbosum are detected in Bronze Age cremation graves. In the Iron Age, however, they mainly occur in domestic sites. This shows that the interpretation of the plant remains is dependent on their archaeological context. A ritual meaning of the bulbs has to be considered in the interpretation, but they may also have contributed to people’s daily diet. This evaluation of bulb finds in prehistoric and historic contexts contributes to the debate on the relevance of plant gathering in early economies and in ritual activities.     

The business of D-Day: an exploratory study of consumer behaviour

In this exploratory study the symbolic aspects of heritage tourism are considered from a consumer behaviour perspective. A qualitative study was conducted of key tourist sites in the Normandy D-Day landing region of France. Museums, cemeteries, gun batteries, beaches and plinths comprise the key significant sites of tourist visitation to the region. Using two seminal consumer behaviour models, Holt’s four metaphors of consumption and Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry’s ‘Sacred and Profane’ dichotomy experiences and perceptions of five academics and their interaction with site visitors were compiled, compared and interpreted using key concepts of authenticity and verisimilitude favoured by MacCannell. The result confirms the a priori hypothesis that economic imperatives are at odds with perceptions of quality and sacredness, leading to the commodification of otherwise venerable sites. A number of ‘quality determinants’ used to determine experience were also gleaned, namely historical significance, gravitas, ambience, number of exhibits, quality of exhibits, authenticity of exhibits, aesthetics in display and perceived respect in display. With due consideration to the criteria visitors used to determine experience quality, experience engineering can to some degree counter what appears to be an inversely proportional economic/quality dynamic.     

Archaeological wells in southern France: Late Neolithic to Roman plant remains from Mas de Vignoles IX (Gard) and their implications for the study of settlement,economy and environment

Abstract

A study of plant remains from seven archaeological wells at Mas de Vignoles IX, near Nîmes, southern France, was used to shed light on a current gap in the archaeological record caused by erosion and modern agriculture. The analysis also explored the reliability of these sources for palaeoenvironmental and palaeoeconomical information. Significant results on the spatial organization of human habitation, economic activities, and on the environment and its exploitation were obtained for the Middle Neolithic to Roman periods. Furthermore, the Neolithic wells also provided the first early finds of fig seeds in France. The abundance of weed and ruderal plants up to the Iron Age is consistent with data from other studies and their dramatic decrease during the Roman period may have resulted from radical changes in land management. The study marks the first time, in southern France, that a group of wells from a single site have provided a complete record throughout the later prehistoric and Roman periods.     

Charcoal reflectance measurements: implications for structural characterization and assessment of diagenetic alteration

Charcoal is a valuable source of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental proxy data. However growing evidence suggests that production conditions can strongly influence post-depositional alteration of charcoal. Consequently, both reconstruction of production temperature and understanding of the potential for diagenetic alteration are of great interest. Here, we use mean random reflectance (Ro_mean) in conjunction with other chemical characterization methods to address these questions. Ro_mean was obtained for a suite of modern analogue charcoal, produced under controlled conditions, and for a series of natural charcoal samples, obtained from archaeological and palaeoenvironmental deposits. Ro_mean proves to be a robust measure to assess formation temperature for samples produced at 400 °C and above, even after exposure to highly oxidizing conditions. Ro_mean is also useful for samples formed between 300 °C and 400 °C. However, if an assemblage of charcoals has been exposed to oxidizing conditions, lower temperature charcoals may be preferentially lost. It is apparent that charcoal produced at lower temperatures is more highly susceptible to chemical oxidation, and that there is a continuum in charcoal degradation potential, dependant upon fuel material and production conditions.