HELLENISTIC GLAZED WARES FROM ATHENS AND SOUTHERN ITALY: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES AND IMPLICATIONS

The original intention of the project, conceived in the context of the British School at Rome's excavation and survey programme in the Bradano basin (based on Gravina) was to establish the composition patterns of Hellenistic glazed wares from sites in southern Apulia, and then to use these to trace the trading patterns of the area, against a control group of sherds from the Athenian Agora. It proved possible to distinguish Attic from Apulian sherds by their nickel and chromium content, and average-link-cluster-analysis by computer showed that Gnathian ware from Taranto could be distinguished from seven other south Italian groups, suggesting that speciality wares were made of clays from special beds. Because of the geological homogeneity of the area no further distinctions could be made, but some sherds were also analysed petrologically and by heavy mineral analysis, for a methodological comparison. The very homogeneous geology, coupled with the fineness of the wares showed these methods to be at the limits of their usefulness. Only very generalized conclusions could be drawn concerning the origin of the pottery from the petrological evidence; the micro-mineralogical data showed that interesting differences existed between pottery from the main Apulian sites, but these could equally have reflected natural variations occurring within fairly homogeneous clay deposits.     

The Locus of Carthage: Compounding Geographical Logic

North Africa’s Phoenician city of Carthage was above all a logical place from which the well-informed maritime Phoenicians colonized and controlled the Western Mediterranean. The leading important factors affecting the founding of Carthage were mostly geographical: overall centrality along the southern coast of the Western Mediterranean; proximity to the island bridge of Italy via Sicily; nascent oceanographic knowledge of water currents and wind gyres as well as shoals such as the Gulf of Sidra and the shelter of the Gulf of Tunis itself; and important local topography and religious landmarks.     

CAMPANIAN POTTERY FROM ANCIENT BRUTTIUM (SOUTHERN ITALY): SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED PRODUCTS*

One hundred and fifty-seven sherds of Campanian pottery were analysed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and flame emission spectroscopy (FES). The sherds were found in the course of archaeological excavations carried out at the sites of Sibari, Cosenza, Crotone, Locri, Reggio and Oppido Mamertina in southern Italy (ancient Bruttium, today Calabria). Analyses were carried out on dissolved samples, determining 15 elements per sample (Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Ti, Mn, Sr, Ba, Cr, Cu, Y, La and Sc by ICP-OES, and Na and K by FES). Analytical data were subject to multivariate statistical treatment by hierarchical cluster analysis and principal components analysis. Results indicated different compositional groups, allowing one to separate suspected imports from Campania, Etruria and Sicily from each other and from likely local products. The latter could be further classified into different groups, comprising imitations of foreign forms as well as original local products.     

A PROVENANCE STUDY OF POTTERY FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES NEAR CANOSA,PUGLIA (ITALY)*

Studies have been carried out to assess the provenance of selected pottery excavated at archaeological sites near Canosa, Puglia (Italy). Sixty-six sherds, ranging in date from the mid-seventh century BC to the beginning of the third century BC, were analysed by atomic absorption spectroscopy and 16 elements were determined. The analysis data were subjected to multivariate classification procedures. Tests showed that the majority of the examined sherds came from ancient local kilns; a probable Ionian origin was established for some other sherds, while the rest were of unknown origin.     

PROVENANCE STUDIES OF ROMAN AFRICAN RED SLIP WARE USING NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

African Red Slip ware (ARS) from Carthage and San Sisto Vecchio (Rome) was analysed by neutron activation analysis. The Carthage tableware was linked with Oudna and the type 1 lamps were probably from a northern ARS/lamp factory other than the sources currently investigated. Two samples were central Tunisian, probably manufactured at El Ala. The San Sisto samples divided into three groups and three outliers of undetermined provenance. Group 1 was central Tunisian, probably from El Ala, and was composed entirely of terra sigillata chiara C forms. Group 2 was of unknown origin within northern Tunisia. Group 3 was the largest subset and most of its constituent samples were associated with El Mahrine. Additionally, four samples were linked with Oudna.     

FINE WARE FROM LOCRI EPIZEPHIRI: A PROVENANCE STUDY BY INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY

Fifty-six sherds of fine ware from Locri Epizephiri were analysed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICPOES) and flame emission spectroscopy (FES). The sherds had been excavated on the archaeological areas of Marasà Sud, Centocamere and San Cono, and represent local and imported products from the seventh to the second century BC. The samples were dissolved by fusion with lithium metaborate and analysed for nine elements (Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Ti, Mn, Sr, Ba and Cr) by ICPOES, while Na and K were determined by FES. The analytical data were subjected to hierarchical agglomerative clustering and principal components analysis to classify the sherds into compositional groups. The results obtained indicated that Corinthian, Attic and Ionian products or imitations may be classified in a few separate groups, while most local products are found in a unique, large group.     

A LYONS BRANCH OF THE POTTERY-MAKING FIRM OF ATEIUS OF AREZZO

Fifty-one waster sherds of Terra Sigillata (～20-0 b.c. ) from Arezzo, Italy and Lyons, France have been chemically analysed for twenty-eight elements by neutron activation and seven by X-ray fluorescence. Most of the elemental abundances were measured with high precision and cross-comparisons of the two techniques of measurement (and sample preparation) give added insight as to their relative precision, the calibration differences and the extent to which volatile materials such as carbonate or water influence the results. The sherds from Arezzo formed a homogeneous and distinctive chemical group while all but two of those from Lyons were classified into three such groups. Two of the Lyons groups (MML A and MML B) were from Montée de La Muette and one was from Loyasse. Four additional sherds from houses excavated in Strasbourg and one from Lyons, all of which bore the signature of the famous Anetine pottery-making firm of Ateius, were also analyzed by the same techniques. These signed sherds all had the same composition pattern and it closely matched one of those from Montée de La Muette (MML A) in Lyons. It is therefore suggested that these five sherds bearing the Ateius signature were made in the general vicinity of Lyons and were part of the output of an as yet unknown Gallic branch of the firm of Ateius.     

Portuguese Blue‐on‐Blue 16th–17th Century Pottery

Blue‐on‐blue (‘berettino’) sherds have appeared in numerous production and consumption archaeological excavations in Lisbon and other archaeological sites in Portugal (dated from the mid‐16th century to the beginning of the 17th century). The abundance of this interesting faience led us to compare it with similar pottery from other well‐known production centres in Italy, namely Liguria (Savona and Albisola), Spain (the Triana kilns) and the Low Countries. Differences in the diffraction patterns of the sherds' pastes from the four countries were observed. In most samples, cobalt blue silicate (cobalt olivine) was identified in the dark blue or light blue glazes through the use of micro‐Raman spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance spectra. A remarkable difference in the calcite contents of the Lisbon and Seville pottery sherds was observed, in accordance with previous observations of high calcite contents of Seville ceramics. A comparison was also made for all of the blue‐on‐blue sherds studied here with many other 16th–17th century sherds from Lisbon using bivariate plots of K/Si versus Ca/Si. Lisbon and Seville pottery behave very differently, whereas sherds from Italy and the Low Countries occupy intermediate positions.     

Provenance of Red‐Figure Pottery of the Classical Period Excavated at Olympia

Neutron activation analysis (NAA) has been applied to a set of red‐figure pottery fragments excavated in Olympia, in Elis: (a) to determine the provenance of these vases, since this is difficult by archaeological means, and the vessels might be local Elean or Attic, Corinthian or Italian products; and (b) to determine the characteristic elemental pattern of the clay paste prepared by the potters of this Elean region. Included for comparison are several Corinthian sherds excavated in Kyme, Italy, that are archaeologically classified as exports from Corinthia to Italy, and fragments of local Italian Corinthian imitations. The majority of the red‐figure vases were made locally in the north‐western Peloponnese and show the elemental pattern termed OlyA, which is represented in many vases and clay samples from this region that were known previously. It is not very different from the well‐known pattern of the north‐eastern Peloponnese (Argolid/Corinth) termed MYBE (Mycenae/Berbati), but can be separated by its lower Cs, Rb and K concentrations, as proven by many sherds from the Argolid and wasters from Berbati. Only a few red‐figure vessels are imports from Attica, but none come from Italy.     

THE ORIGIN OF BLACK‐FIGURE GREEK CERAMICS FOUND IN NAUCRATIS (NILE DELTA)*

At the site of the Greek trading port of Naucratis, located on the Canopic mouth of the Nile inland from Alexandria, Flinders Petrie and later archaeologists encountered sherds of Classical Greek black‐figure pottery. We have characterized the pastes of 14 of these specimens, drawn from the collections of the British Museum and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, by neutron activation analysis and numerical taxonomy. The ceramics agree in composition with a reference group centred on Athens. We also investigated a small number of additional black‐figure sherds from other sites. One specimen, from Ruvo di Puglia (Italy), actually originated in or near Marseilles. There was no evidence for local manufacture of black‐figure pottery at Naucratis.     

Non-destructive chemical characterization of ceramic sherds from Shipwreck 31CR314 and Brunswick Town, North Carolina

The purpose of this study was to chemically and texturally characterize ceramic oil jar sherds from North Carolina Shipwreck 31CR314 and to explore the utility of environmental scanning electron microscopy/X-ray energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM/EDS) for that purpose. The oil jar sherds, widely dispersed about Shipwreck 31CR314, are morphologically similar to each other, which suggests they could be from a single jar, but with so few joins this could not be concluded with certainty. Therefore, an aim of this study was to investigate whether chemical or textural characterization of the sherds might reveal unique attributes that could distinguish individual jars; results of characterization perhaps could give information on their origin and possibly site formation processes, such as whether environmental forces could have scattered sherds of a single jar during and after sinking of the ship. Previous studies have indicated this shipwreck is likely the remnants of the Queen Anne's Revenge, flagship of the pirate Blackbeard. Sherds from this shipwreck were compared with similar oil jar sherds excavated from a land site, Brunswick Town, North Carolina, to explore the use of composition and texture as hallmarks. The chemical components of the artifacts were determined by SEM/EDS. This method of analysis is valuable for archaeological research because it is rapid and non-destructive to the ceramic artifacts. Both groups of lead-glazed coarse red earthenware sherds were texturally similar except for the glazed sides of all 31CR314 sherds that exhibited small tracks of unique crescent-shaped marks. These marks may be due to manufacturing effects and immersion in seawater, and the marks may serve as hallmarks for individual jars or potentially individual manufacturers. The sherds were generally similar in composition, but the two groups exhibited distinct differences. Brunswick Town sherds consistently contained more phosphate on unglazed sides, an average 1.46 wt.% P₂O₅, and also contained trace elements not detected in the Shipwreck 31CR314 sherds. These distinct differences could be due to different manufacturing origins for Shipwreck 31CR314 and Brunswick Town ceramics but also could reflect their subjection to different environments during use and loss prior to archaeological recovery.     

A multivariate analysis of pottery from southwestern Cyprus using neutron activation analysis data

Neutron activation analysis is employed to geochemically characterize 129 pottery sherds collected from 38 sites during an archaeological survey of the Paphos District of southwestern Cyprus. Cluster analysis identifies three significant groupings using 26 trace elements and rare earth elements. These compositional groupings appear to reflect differences in the geographical locations of the sherd collection sites and particularly the influence of the surficial geology. In particular, the rocks of the ultramafic Troodos Ophiolite Zone, the Mamonia Complex, and various formations of the Circum Troodos Sedimentary Sequence appear to impart a detectable imprint on the sherds of the study area. Discriminant analysis identifies Ce, Th, Cr, Na, Fe, Hf, Ba and Co as the most significant chemical discriminators between the three compositional groupings and derives two discriminant functions that between them account for 100% of the variance between the groups. Discriminant analysis also confirms that 82% of the sherds classified by cluster analysis are correctly classified. Based on probability measures, the large majority of the sherds (98%) are considered to be local in origin.     

ARCHAEOMETRIC ANALYSES ON ‘CORINTHIAN B’ TRANSPORT AMPHORAE FOUND AT GELA (SICILY,ITALY)*

The aim of this work is to throw light on the archaic production of ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae, which are widely diffused in the Western Mediterranean basin and are also present in Greece, but whose geographical provenance is still under discussion. We analysed a group of 37 samples belonging to different ceramic classes dated to the sixth and fifth centuries bc . In particular, there were 19 sherds of trade amphorae of the so‐called archaic ‘Corinthian B’ type, from archaeological excavations in Gela (Sicily, Italy). As a comparison, we also investigated 18 samples of tiles and local coarse pottery from Sibari (Calabria, Italy). The samples were analysed using different techniques, such as optical analysis with a polarized‐light microscope (OM), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform–infrared absorption (FT–IR) and inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES). The combination of these complementary analytical methods allowed us to characterize the samples, determine their firing temperatures and identify the probable provenance. The study of thin sections of sherds by OM allowed us to divide the investigated amphorae into two main groups: the first was characterized by a composition that suggested a Western provenance, in particular from the Calabrian–Peloritan region; the second one was very similar to the ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae that come from Corinth and have been classified as ‘fabric class 1’ by Whitbread (1995 ). The XRD and FT–IR results permitted us to determine the mineral composition of the findings and to estimate their firing temperature. The ICP–OES technique was particularly useful in identifying the production centres. In fact, in the studied pottery, this analysis revealed Ni and Cr values that were noticeably different between Greek and southern Italian production.     

Elemental characterisation of Barbar ceramics from Tell Abraq

The early second millennium levels at Tell Abraq have yielded over 600 fragments of friable, red-ridged pottery with exploding lime grits which is superficially indistinguishable from contemporary, so-called 'Barbar'pottery on Bahrain (1). The Bahraini origin of the Tell Abraq Barbar sherds has been demonstrated by means of proton-induced x-ray and gamma-ray emission (PIXE/PIGME) analysis. In addition, the results of x-ray fluorescence (XRF) of Barbar pottery from Saar on Bahrain (2) have been re-examined, showing that the subgroups which characterise the Tell Abraq material correspond to those found in the Saar corpus. The techniques used on the Tell Abraq and Saar material – PIXE/PIGME and XRF – are compared.     

Characterization of Iron age pottery from eastern Turkey by laser- induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)

Selected pottery sherds coming from the Ayanis, Dilkaya and Karagündüz excavations in eastern Turkey and dated from the Early to Middle Iron Age were examined as regards their composition by using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The objective of the study was first to investigate the potential of the LIBS technique in the compositional analysis of pottery and further to explore correlations in spectral data, by using chemometrics methods that would possibly enable discrimination among different sherds. This work is part of a broader study aiming to examine clay variability both before and during the Urartian State period and to explore possible relationships and differences among pottery objects from fortresses and settlements or settlements and cemeteries on the basis of the clay composition of sherds. Preliminary results demonstrate that by using the LIBS technique it is possible to analyse pottery sherds in qualitative and semi-quantitative ways, providing information on the clay and slip composition. Furthermore, encouraging results have been obtained by carrying out principal component analysis (PCA) on the LIBS spectra, which suggest that in certain cases, it is possible to directly correlate spectral information with the origin of pottery sherds.     

The Trial of Socrates Revisited

Different sorts of people have been revisiting the trial of Socrates for almost 2,500 years: philosophers, political theorists, politicians, jurists, historians, journalists and artists. Each has his or her own agenda for reconstructing the motives of the prosecution, the thinking of the jurors, and the apparently perverse behaviour of Socrates himself. This paper examines some of the more influential approaches to Socrates (including those of his contemporaries, Plato, Xenophon and Aristophanes), and attempts to set them in appropriate contexts. By way of a conclusion, there is an exploration of the background and context to the trial itself, taking into account recent work on Athenian law, religion and punishment, closing with an attempt to explain the significance of the likely location of the law-court, within the Agora or city square of Athens.     

Technological Features of Roman Terra Sigillata from Gallic and Italian Centres of Production

Technological features of sherds of Roman terra sigillata were studied. The sherds analysed represented products of workshops which were most probably located in Gaul, central Italy, north-west Italy and the plain of the river Po. Equivalent firing temperatures were estimated by colour measurement, X-ray diffraction and thermal expansion measurement; in addition, the chemical and morphological features of the red sintered slips were investigated using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis. The combined results suggest that, relative to northern Italian products,terra sigillata from Gaul and central Italy was made by potters who were more successful in modifying slip composition and controlling firing temperature to obtain highly sintered slips. Northern Italian potters seem to have worked their clays less successfully and fired them at temperatures which were too low to overcome the limited presence of fluxes in the slip.     

THE DATING OF ANCIENT CHINESE CELADON BY INAA AND PATTERN RECOGNITION METHODS*

In 2005, sherds of a special type of ancient Longquan celadon ware were excavated at Maojiawan, in the city of Beijing, China. Although archaeologists agree that these sherds were fired in the period between the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, their specific date is unclear. In order to solve this problem, five other groups of ancient Longquan celadon sherds of known date were selected as reference samples. The elemental body composition of all the sherds was determined by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA). Using the same principles as in provenance research, pattern recognition methods were used to build classification functions to specify the date of the unknown sherds. After analysing the experimental data by discriminant analysis, three classification functions were built. All the unknown sherds were classified as Ming Dynasty. This prediction is well in accordance with the fact that these sherds are similar to other Longquan Ming celadon, and so they should be fired in the same dynasty. This also verified the judgement of the Beijing Institute of Cultural Relics.     

The Production and Circulation of Carthaginian Glass Under the Rule of the Romans and the Vandals (Fourth to Sixth Century ad): A Chemical Investigation

Fifty‐seven glass samples from Carthage dating to the fourth to sixth century ad were analysed using the electron microprobe. The results show that these samples are all soda–lime–silica glass. Their MgO and K₂O values, which are below 1.5%, suggest that they were made from natron, a flux that was widely used during the Roman period. The major and minor elements show that these samples can be divided into four groups, three of which correspond to the late Roman period glass groups that were found throughout the Roman Empire: Levantine I, and ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ HIMT. Of particular interest is our Group 2, which is technologically and compositionally similar to HIMT glass and the CaO and Al₂O₃ values of which are similar to those of Levantine I. Glass of similar composition has been reported by several authors and is predominantly found dating from the late fifth to seventh century. This could represent a ‘new’ glass group; therefore further study is needed to determine its origin. Also, this study suggests that the Vandal invasion in North Africa did not disrupt the glass trade between Carthage and the Levantine coast.     

'Ubaid and ED pottery from five sites at' Ain as-Sayh, Saudi Arabia

This paper presents an analysis of sherds, collected from five archaeological sites at'Ain as-Sayh in Saudi Arabia. The original material has not been available to the author. Consequently, the analysis is based on drawings, photos, and notes provided by H. A. McClure, one of the researchers who collected the material in the field. The sherds may be divided into two groups: one dated to the'Ubaid period, and one dated roughly to the third millennium BC. In the paper the sherds are typologized and compared with material from other sites. A dating of the'Ain as-Sayh sites is attempted with reference to the distribution of pottery-types on the sites, geomorphological information, and a set of mutually consistent radiocarbon dates.