PRICE AND LOCATION CONJECTURES IN MEDIUM- AND LONG-RUN SPATIAL COMPETITION MODELS*

ABSTRACT. This paper examines medium-run and long-run equilibria in unbounded (circular) and bounded (linear) one-dimensional multifirm markets. A price-location adjustment model is outlined that dows simulation of the spatial equilibrium when these firms anticipate reactions from their nearest spatial rivals. Thus, the market equilibrium is derived from the interdependent but atomistic decisions of the competing firms and is not imposed by some outside observer or agency. Ail conjectures are exogenous; the three well-known price conjectures (Greenhut-Ohta, Hotelling-Smithies, and Losch) are highlighted; and the relevant comparative statics are provided.     

Estimating Spatial Models Within A Disequilibrium Framework

Modeling demand in a spatial context requires careful handling of regional interactions. In situations where there are constraints in some markets that lead to spillovers to others it is useful to build this explicitly into the model. In this paper I present a theoretical model that is related to the disequilibrium and the spatial econometric literature. Under certain conditions the model may be estimable and an appropriate estimation technique that uses the EM algorithm, is put forward. A data set from the U.K. market for secondary school places provides a test for the procedure.     

Gibrat Revisited: An Urban Growth Model Incorporating Spatial Interaction and Innovation Cycles. 再评吉尔布瑞特：顾及空间相互作用和创新周期的城市增长模型

We designed a geographical model for simulating the distribution of urban growth in systems of cities. The model incorporates the hierarchical and spatial diffusion of innovation cycles through gravitational interactions within a set of cities. Using theoretical simulations, we demonstrate that this model is able to reproduce the observed properties of urban systems for the log‐normal distribution of city sizes as well as the observed distribution of growth rates. Our experimentation was performed on a large harmonized historical database that includes a few hundred French urban agglomerations between 1831 and 1999 (Pumain‐INED database). Both spatial interaction and innovation cycles are necessary ingredients to explain the evolution of urban hierarchies. We suggest that Gibrat's generic stochastic growth model based on independent entities should be replaced by a more relevant model of spatially and temporally interdependent geographical entities.     

GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM OF SPATIAL PRODUCT AND LABOR MARKETS*

ABSTRACT A simple general equilibrium model relates spatial product markets and spatial labor markets. The firm is treated as being a spatial monopolist or as a Löschian competitor in the output market and as a spatial monopsonist in the labor market. Derived free spatial demand and free regional labor supply are defined, and their properties examined. The model provides the framework for analyzing the impact of a technological improvement in labor productivity on the structure of the spatial markets. The impact of entry on spatial labor supply is an important determinant of whether or not entry lowers wages and raises output prices. Unlike the spaceless competitive paradigm, zero-profit long-run equilibrium can occur in a space economy under conditions of increasing returns to scale.     

The role of equilibrium and disequilibrium in modeling regional growth and decline: a critical reassessment

ABSTRACT. The assumption of interregional equilibrium in migration research has recently been attacked. At issue is the motivation for on-going migration if rents and wags accurately compensate for spatial amenity variations; but if rents and wages fail to accurately compensate potential migrants, then amenity valuations must be flawed. We here show that arguments supporting substantial disequilibrium in the US. economy are unconvincing. The substantive issues are then clarified by a model which allows for both equilibrium and disequilibrium migration. We conclude that intertemporally systematic migration stems predominantly from equilibrium forces.     

PRICING POLICY REACTIONS TO AGGLOMERATION IN A MARKET WITH SPATIAL SEARCH*

ABSTRACT. Price dispersion (variation) and agglomeration are common characteristics of spatial markets, in particular, markets with imperfect consumer information and search. However, pricing and location strategies in these markets are not well analyzed since spatial search is difficult to model without restricting the spatial dimension of the problem. This paper analyzes pricing and location strategies in a market with spatid search using a probabilistic modeling strategy that does not restrict search patterns in the plane. Specifically, the analysis considers the pricing strategy of an isolated firm in response to the agglomeration of competing firms. Results indicate that spatial and temporal price dispersion are effective responses to competitors'agglomeration. However, the relative effectiveness of these strategies varies with market conditions. In addition, agglomeration can have some counterintuitive effects. This paper also provides insights into existing theories of spatial search and spatial competition in spatially-restricted (linear and circular) markets.     

An Application of Canonical Correlation Analysis in Regional Science: TheInterrelationships Between Transport and Development in China's Zhujiang Delta

Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) has the ability to deal with two sets of multivariate variables simultaneously and to produce both structural and spatial meanings. In view of the valuable insights to be gained, in this paper I examine the potential applications of CCA in regional science by describing its algorithm in a regional or spatial context. Next, I apply CCA to explore the mutually interdependent relationship between transport and development inChina's Zhujiang Delta. The results highlight the utility of CCA in revealing the structural and spatial patterns of two dominant and four subdominant transport-development relationships in this growing region of China.     

身份、流动与权力:街头摊贩的空间实践

城市公共空间的意义与秩序,建构于使用者利用空间并遇到相关主体的日常场景中。论文以空间实践为理论视角,搭建涵盖身份、流动、权力的分析框架,发掘开封小吃夜市摊贩的身份属性与流动特征,探寻边界和节奏同权力运作的关联。研究认为：①回族摊贩为夜市赋予民族特性和地方性特色,回族社区是塑造从业身份的引力场;②摊贩通过短距离流动将集体社会文化属性嵌入空间,造就夜市和清真寺的空间邻近关系;③夜市的正规性附着于空间边界,场所的可占据性呈现于时间节奏,反映出权力运作依赖于空间资源的有限性与区位条件的差异性。空间实践能够为解释空间变迁中意义与秩序的形成逻辑提供理论框架,此案例分析可为公共空间的长效治理提供政策启迪。     

A Measure of Competitive Access to Destinations for Comparing Across Multiple Study Regions

Accessibility is now a common way to measure the benefits provided by transportation–land use systems. Despite its widespread use, few measurement options allow for the comparison of accessibility across multiple urban systems, and most do not adequately control for market competition between demand-side actors and supply-side facilities in localized markets. In this article, we develop a measure of competitive access to destinations that can be used to accurately compare accessibility between regions. This measure stems from spatial interaction modeling and accounts for competition at both the supply and demand sides of analysis, regional differences in transportation networks and travel behavior, and any imbalance between the size of the population and the number of opportunities. We use this method to compute access to employment for Canada's eight largest cities to comparatively examine inequalities in accessibility, both within and between cities, and by travel mode.     

COMPETITIVE AND IMPERFECTLY COMPETITIVE LABOR MARKETS IN URBAN AREAS*

ABSTRACT. In this paper, I present a model incorporating two kinds of spatial labor markets: a centralized competitive market at the central business district (CBD) and dispersed local markets across economic space under imperfect competition. Wage differentials and the size of the two types of markets are endogenously determined by rational choices of workers as well as profit maximization of firms. Workers can exercise rational choices with respect to market places where they commute and supply their labor. In this model, I attempt, in effect, to integrate the Hotelling-type paradigm and the Samuelson-type paradigm in a consistent spatial setting.     

Migration and Occupational Choice among Young Labor Force Entrants: A Human Capital Model

Interregional variations in the conditions for entering the labor force are investigated by analyzing interdependencies between migration behavior and occupational choice for young labor force entrants. The human capital framework indicates that occupational choice depends on the costs and returns associated with entering various occupations, and that interregional variation in these costs and returns is a major reason for migration. Occupational choice and migration behavior will be interdependent if the costs and returns for particular occupations vary over local labor markets, relative to other occupations, and patterns of interdependence between the two decisions are analyzed, using a model of the joint choice of occupation and location. An empirical analysis of occupational choices and migration behavior for young people who entered the U.S. labor force in the 1975–80 period indicates that the odds for entering professional or managerial occupations varied with origin and migration behavior in systematic ways.     

SPATIAL BARRIERS AND INFORMATION PROCESSING IN HOUSING MARKETS: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF THE CONNECTICUT RIVER ON HOUSING RETURNS

ABSTRACT. Relative to financial securities markets, information is a scarce commodity in real estate markets. If information diffuses quickly in real estate markets, then we can infer that telecommunications play an important role. On the other hand, spatial barriers such as rivers can slow down the assimilation of relevant information if face-to-face contacts are an important source of information. We examine whether and how the Connecticut River (along with bridges) alters the nature and strength of spatial diffusion of information on housing returns. We report strong evidence that the Connecticut River slows down the spatial diffusion of information and that its effects are consistent with face-to-face contact, as opposed to telecommunications.     

Price Variation in Spatial Oligopolies

The “geography of price” is being given renewed attention by geographers and economists. This paper examines spatial price variation in both unbounded (circular) and bounded (linear) one-dimensional markets. Firms compete for consumers in the short run by adjusting price until the Bertrand equilibrium is reached in the market. While firms act as spatial oligopolists in specific market segments, the profit-maximizing price of any given firm depends directly and indirectly upon the spatial-economic properties (locations, marginal costs) of all other firms in the market.     

权力关系、社区空间与乡村旅游利益获取——基于福建省泰宁县五个乡村社区的实证研究

权力关系主导着社区空间的生产及其利益分配。旅游规划作为一种权力工具,引发乡村社区空间的等级秩序发生变化,使乡村社区权力和利益分配出现新的非均衡发展的空间格局。旅游开发中政府权力主导的房屋拆迁、土地征用等介入方式可能导致乡村社区丧失旅游空间生产控制权。权力关系影响下的乡村社区与旅游生产的空间关联性、乡村社区的旅游参与性决定着社区居民的旅游利益。本文对福建省泰宁县的五个乡村旅游社区的调查研究证实了以上观点。     

SPATIAL PRICING IN INTERDEPENDENT MARHETS*

ABSTRACT. Conditions for spatial price equilibrium are derived for a set of firms in oligopolistic spatial competition, distributed at fixed locations in a heterogeneous region where consumer purchasing patterns are a probabilistic function of the price distribution rather than a deterministic function of proximity to firms. The resulting prices vary with accessibility to consumers or with the degree of local spatial monopoly, and result in non-zero profits for firms. Conditions describing the existence and stability properties of this spatial price equilibrium are defined, and are shown to be equivalent for two different hypotheses concerning disequilibrium pricing behavior: a partial price adjustment model and a Bertrand game. For two different profit goals, total profit maximization and profit rate maximization, it is shown that a spatial price equilibrium exists and is at least locally quasi-stable.     

Rural marketing in medieval Nottinghamshire

The data sources available for a study of medieval marketing are extremely limited. However, work in contemporary developing nations illustrates the existence of a detailed structure of periodic marketing. This paper draws cautious parallels between medieval Nottinghamshire and these contemporary patterns. It begins by reconstructing a possible set of markets for the fourteenth century; details of tolls and rents are mentioned in order to indicate the types of produce in circulation and some aspects of the practical functioning of the markets. The spatial and temporal characteristics of these markets are shown not to agree with either the trader or the consumer models of periodic marketing, although there is some evidence to suggest that markets taking place on the same day were generally not located in settlements that were close together. Taxation evidence suggests that a market did not always lead to a relative increase in the importance of a settlement. In addition markets appear to have been established by lords of widely varying social status. By the seventeenth century there had been a large reduction in the number of markets, and they had become essentially urban in character, primarily associated with the few main roads in the county.     

广州批发市场的销售物流网络空间研究——基于基本—非基本经济活动视角

经济基础理论是解释城市增长的经典理论之一,但实地数据的缺乏使得相关实证研究效果不佳。结合实地调查数据,从基本—非基本经济活动的视角对广州市批发市场的销售物流网络空间进行研究,得出基本经济活动与非基本经济活动的比率高达4.27,反映出城市经济活动外向性的特点;基本经济活动网络总体上形成了以广州为中心,珠三角和省外城市为重要支点的星型流动格局;非基本经济活动网络呈现出城市中部强、南北弱的货流格局。最后,采用R型和Q型因子分析方法,对销售物流网络进行流场识别,深入刻画网络的空间特征。结果显示销售物流网络中形成了一个综合活动场、五个基本活动场以及两个非基本活动场。     

La dynamique spatiale des marchés locaux de l'emploi au sein du champ métropolitain de Québec, 1981–2001

Spatial Dynamics of Local Labour Markets in the Québec City Metropolitan Field, 1981–2001
This research analyzes the spatial dynamics (from 1981 to 2001) of local labour markets at an infra-regional scale, namely the Québec metropolitan field, with particular emphasis on interactions between the metropolitan region and its hinterland. It seeks to better understand the factors underlying this evolution. Centrographic analyses were performed to characterize the evolution of the spatial configuration of local labour markets (displacement of gravity centre, shape change, evolution of dispersion indices and of workforce preferential distribution axes). Between 1981 and 2001, almost all employment poles experienced an increase in the mean-distance tied to their recruitment area, that being particularly true for peri-metropolitan poles which employ an increasing part of their workforce inside the metropolitan labour basin, where a more qualified and diversified labour force is available; thus, giving rise to significant reverse commuting. In addition to the influence of distance to metropolitan area, a multiple regression model shows that factors such as manufacturing specialization and employment growth within job centres also play a crucial role in the spatial dynamics of local labour markets in the Québec City metropolitan field.     

TESTING FOR SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM USING HAPPINESS DATA

Happiness data are rarely used in regional and urban analysis, but it is a prime data set for testing the assumption of spatial equilibrium, the key assumption in the field of urban economics. In this paper, we explore the relationship between regional happiness and one‐year lagged change in population growth rates for the nine census regions in the United States using data on reported well‐being from National Opinion Research Center's annual General Social Survey. We observe that, while there is evidence of spatial disequilibrium during recessions and in the long run, happier regions generally experience higher population growth rates indicating a movement (or tendency) toward spatial equilibrium.     

Classical Central Places as Protected Thresholds

Previous research efforts demonstrate the use of location covering in the spatial structuring of central places within a single-good context. In a multilevel context, this paper similarly develops a mathematical programming approach to the siting of central places based on the “protection” of inner (or threshold) markets. The objective function maximizes both market coverage of demand and market overlap, subject to an upper bound on market overlap; this allows the formation of different market structures consistent with the various K-valued central place systems of Christaller and Lösch. Siting examples serve to illustrate the working of the protected threshold model in isotropic settings. Furthermore, ways in which the present model might be extended for other situations are examined.