Translating the Word: Dialogism and Debate in Two Gikuyu Dictionaries

Much of the literature on missionaries and translation in colonial Africa has tended to view missionary or colonial authored texts (Bibles, dictionaries, and grammars in particular) as instruments through which foreign ways of thinking were imposed upon unsuspecting Africans. In a detailed comparison of two Gikuyu dictionaries—one authored by an Anglican missionary and the other by a Presbyterian missionary some ten years later—this article locates significant contradictions in meanings, particularly in words associated with religion and authority. By situating these contradictions within the social history of early twentieth-century Gikuyuland, the author is able to demonstrate that these contradictions are not "mistakes"; rather, such inconsistencies evidence the complex ontological and political debates provoked out of early evangelistic activity. For the author, who draws theoretical insight from Homi Bhabha and M. M. Bakhtin, mission texts like dictionaries are fundamentally dialogical, the product of sustained and contentious conversations between missionaries and African interlocutors. Thus, they not only shaped Gikuyu life, as earlier scholarship contended, but were profoundly shaped bycontemporary Gikuyu debates over religion, power, and authority.     

First Insights into the Technique Used for Heat Treatment of Chert at the Solutrean Site of Laugerie‐Haute,France

The earliest evidence of flint and chert heat treatment was found in the ~21.5–17 ka old European Solutrean culture. The appearance of pyrotechnology as part of the production of stone tools has important implications for our understanding of Upper Palaeolithic technological evolution and the specific adaptations during the last glacial maximum in Europe. However, the techniques and procedures used to heat‐treat rocks during the Solutrean remain poorly understood. No direct archaeological evidence has so far been found and the most promising approach is to understand these techniques by determining the parameters with which flint and chert were heated at that time. In this study, we investigate the heating temperature of 44 heat‐treated laurel‐leaf points from Laugerie‐Haute, using a non‐destructive technique based on infrared spectroscopy. Our results document that most of the artefacts were heated to a narrow interval of temperatures between 250 °C and 300 °C. This indicates a standardized technique that allowed to created similar conditions during successive heating cycles. The implications of these results for our understanding of the technical complexity during the Solutrean must be discussed in the light of different heating techniques used at different places and periods.     

评《战国秦汉漆器研究》

一洪石女士在其博士论文基础上修改完成的《战国秦汉漆器研究》一书,是近年来战国秦汉考古学研究的一项新成果,应当引起学术界的重视。战国秦汉漆器的研究是一个极有学术价值的课题。在这一时期各种材质的器物中,漆器占据着特殊的地位。以之与商周青     

明代上洛县主墓出土彩绘木质文物的保护与研究

2007年6—7月,在位于西安市长安县北里王村村东的上洛县主墓中,出土了一批色彩鲜艳的彩绘木俑。因该墓葬曾遭受早期盗扰,出土时木俑较为凌乱摆放在墓室前厅,原来的摆放位置已被扰乱。出土的彩绘木俑均有不同程度的腐朽,其中部分彩绘木俑保存较完整,部分有残缺;整体彩绘保存相对完整,局部有脱落现象。由于长期遭受墓葬环境的影响,所有的彩绘木俑出土时都处于亚饱水状态,而且机械强度较低,没有彩绘或彩绘脱落部位的木胎外观变黄、变脆。这批木俑的木俑颜色鲜艳、姿态各异,不仅具有较高的艺术价值,而且对研究明代民间的宗教信仰,以及葬丧习俗也颇有裨益。为了保护这批珍贵的文物,通过对比试验研究,采用自然脱水法使其脱水定形。使用3％PrimalAC33的水溶液对其彩绘层进行加固保护。同时,在保护处理的过程中,通过显微观察以及一些科学分析手段,对这批木俑的制作方法、装饰材料及工艺进行了初步的探索与研究。     

DETECTING TRENDS IN THE PREDICTION OF THE BURIED PAST: A REVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES IN ARCHAEOLOGY*

Geophysical survey techniques are a highly visible part of the scientific toolkit that is now used by archaeologists. In this paper, the history of the use of geophysical techniques in archaeology will be discussed, as will significant research themes associated with the most widely used prospecting devices. It is apparent that while the use of geophysical techniques is at an all‐time high, there are many key areas where prospecting is rapidly developing. Some of the advances relate to fundamental aspects of the techniques, while others dictate how we undertake survey in the future. There is a movement away from pre‐gridded survey areas towards real‐time GPS for navigation. This allows greater integration, or fusion, of disparate data sources using visualization techniques derived from associated disciplines. The analysis of landscapes has become a major component of the application of new technology and there are many challenges to be tackled, including how to analyse and interpret significant archaeology within large‐scale, data‐rich, multi‐technique investigations. The reflective nature of the review acknowledges the important role of Archaeometry in the development of archaeological geophysics.     

Night-time electron density of the lower ionosphere in the South Atlantic Geomagnetic Anomaly region obtained with a LF/VLF oblique ionosonde

Studies of the reflectivity of the night-time lower ionosphere in the region of the South Atlantic Geomagnetic Anomaly have been carried out for the period August 1980 to July 1981, using data collected by an oblique ionosonde at low/very low frequency, in the southern part of Brazil, near the centre of the Anomaly. From these studies monthly average behaviour of heights and reflection coefficients of the lower ionosphere between 15 and 60 kHz have been deduced. Assuming an exponential model of the electron density distribution in the lower ionosphere the appropriate numerical parameters were calculated using a trial-and-error approach with ‘full wave’ calculations and iterative computational techniques. For the period considered three sets of parameters could satisfactorily represent the lower ionosphere in the anomalous region and in the period analysed: one valid from August to November 1980, one valid from December 1980 to March 1981 and the other valid from May to July 1981. April 1981 seemed to present anomalous behaviour.     

Age‐at‐Death Estimates from a Disarticulated,Fragmented and Commingled Archaeological Battlefield Assemblage

Estimation of age‐at‐death is an important and challenging part of any investigation of human remains. Extensive research has been undertaken on this subject as demographic information contributes much to bioarchaeological and forensic work. Disarticulated, fragmentary and commingled human remains occur from a wide range of spatial and temporal contexts, and estimation of age‐at‐death can be particularly challenging in these collections. This study evaluated the impact of preservation on techniques that might be applied and their relative utility, using human remains from the site of the Smith's Knoll associated with the Battle of Stoney Creek, a War of 1812 collection from Ontario Canada with some supporting documentary evidence on age‐at‐death. Features assessed were the pubic symphysis, auricular surface and epiphyseal fusion in the innominate. An age‐at‐death estimate was produced for 16 out of 19 individuals considered; the highest minimum number of individuals (MNI) was 24 (right radius) from 2701 identifiable fragments. The pubic symphysis made no contribution to construction of a demographic profile, but as has been suggested previously epiphyseal fusion was useful in this respect. Results demonstrate that previous statements regarding preservation of the auricular surface and its utility in fragmented and poorly preserved collections need to be carefully evaluated. Although 129 fragments of innominate were recorded just one had an auricular surface and post auricular area that could be fully assessed. Transition Analysis was easier to apply than techniques developed previously, and findings from this study suggest that use of the forensic prior distribution could assist in assessment of battlefield assemblages. These results raise some valuable points that need to be considered in any future attempts to improve age‐at‐death estimates using the auricular surface, and important questions regarding expectations for estimation of age‐at‐death in disarticulated, fragmented and commingled collections of human bone. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Verifying the Reliability of Lithic Use-Wear Assessments by ‘Blind Tests’: the Low-Power Approach

Abstract

Several freshly knapped pieces of fine-grained basalt were utilized by an experimenter for a large variety of tasks. The tools were then submitted to an analyst, who was ignorant of the uses to which each of the objects had been put. Employing low-power microscopic techniques, he was able to identify with reasonable accuracy the used part(s) of the implements, the prehended part(s), the activities in which the pieces had been engaged, and the relative resistance of the materials worked. It is argued that low-power micro-wear techniques have several advantages, among which are ease and speed of analysis and availability of equipment. The methods selected for any use-wear analysis of stone tools, however, must be adapted to the particular situation and the questions to be asked of the data.     

Provenance of Coals Recovered from the Wreck of HMAV Bounty

Coal samples from HMAV Bounty were analysed using standard techniques to shed light on their provenance. Petrographic analysis indicated they were Carboniferous, with high vitrinite and liptinite content and a mean random reflectance of vitrinite of 0.99%. Palynological analysis indicated the samples were derived from the Middle Coal Measures, Westphalian B. Combining coal rank (vitrinite reflectance), age, knowledge of seam distributions and coalfield history indicates the most like source to be the Durham Coalfield, possibly the Hutton or Low Main Seams. These coals were mined along the valley of the Weir in the latter part of the 18th century.
© 2007 The Authors     

Geophysical and Aerial Prospecting Techniques at Valley Forge National Historical Park,Pennsylvania

Abstract

A survey of Valley Forge National Historical Park was carried out by MASCA in 1978 for the National Park Service utilizing, among other techniques, aerial photography, the cesium magnetometer, and ground penetrating radar. The aim of the project was to locate evidence of the encampment of 1777–78 using for the most part non-destructive methods. Hut sites and offal pits dating from the Revolutionary War period were identified and a comprehensive survey of previous archaeological work at Valley Forge was carried out. A major problem in interpreting the data from the various techniques employed was the amount of modern disturbance at the park, mostly dating from the three Boy Scout Jamborees held there in 1950, 1957, and 1964. Despite these problems valuable information about the Revolutionary War remains was recovered, and a comprehensive plan for future research was formulated.     

Magnetic imaging and electrical resistivity tomography studies in a Roman military installation found in Satala archaeological site,northeastern Anatolia,Turkey

Satala is one of the last great military centers in the Roman East available for archaeological and historical investigations. This archaeological site is situated on the crossing of two singularly important routes in North-East Asia Minor. Only little archaeological fieldwork in and around Satala has so far been carried out, thus delimiting our knowledge of the site and its role within the Roman military structure of the East. In order to provide further data on the site, we carried out geophysical surveys including the application of magnetic and electrical resistivity techniques in an area north of the Sadak village. The geophysical surveys within this area (supposedly part of the Roman military camp) proceeded in two stages. The first stage saw magnetic gradiometer imaging studies being carried out on 2.1 ha, measured by a Geoscan FM-36 fluxgate gradiometer by using 0.5 × 1 m grid intervals. For the second stage a different geophysical technique was used—resistivity tomography. Resistivity data were collected using a number of combined 2D resistivity pseudosections in the eastern part of the area which contained very regular magnetic anomalies. The 3D data were obtained by the combination of all survey lines collected from 2D data sets, and thereafter the arranged data were processed by using the 3D robust inversion modified from the smoothness-constrained algorithm. Electrical resistivity tomography investigations revealed that the buried archaeological structures might be located near the surface, except for some structures found in the middle of the studied area. The archaeological structures were furthermore determined by realistic model sections and volumetric representations. Magnetic imaging and electrical resistivity tomography surveys show that the combined usage of these techniques advances the understanding of archaeological structures beneath the surface.     

CONSTRUCTION OF THE KHOJA ZAYNUDDIN MOSQUE: USE OF ANIMAL GLUE MODIFIED WITH URINE*

As part of an ongoing project at the World Heritage Site of Bukhara, we investigated the glue used in the construction of the Khoja Zaynuddin mosque. Analysis by a range of techniques confirmed that it consisted of a collagen‐based glue. However, the glue contained many non‐protein constituents. The presence of lipid material suggests that the glue was produced by a relatively unsophisticated process. More surprisingly, various marker compounds of urine were found. Study of the viscosity of a mixture of a modern collagen‐based glue and urea showed that the presence of urea at a concentration typical of human urine reduced the viscosity of the glue, thus improving its spreading characteristics and enabling its use at a lower temperature. Whilst the advantages of adding urea to glue were known to craftsmen in Europe and America in the 19th century, it would appear that the builders of Bukhara were aware of the technique, using less pure components, at a significantly earlier date.     

Going underground: experimental carbonization of fruiting structures under hearths

We show that carbonized fruits and seeds recovered from Middle Stone Age deposits in rock shelters are likely to have been carbonized as part of post-depositional processes. We buried indigenous South African fruits, nuts and seeds at pre-determined depths and distances from the centers of experimental fires. The cold ashes of the hearths and the sand surrounding them were subsequently excavated, using standard archaeological techniques and dry-screening. The fruiting structures from the oxidizing part of the fire were burnt to ashes, whereas those buried in sand under anoxic conditions survived in varying forms. Those buried 5 cm below the center of the fire were carbonized; those buried 10 cm below the center of the fire were dehydrated; and those 5 cm and 10 cm below the surface at the outer edge of the fire were unaffected. Size, moisture or oil content of the original fruit or seed did not appear to influence whether or not carbonization took place. Temperatures recorded 5 cm below the experimental fires suggest that the carbonization occurred at or before a maximum temperature of 328 °C, and also at lower maximum temperatures (152 °C) that were maintained for long periods. Even when the quantities of a particular wood are controlled, open fires may produce variable underground temperatures and the temperatures below ancient hearths would have been equally variable. We suggest that Cyperaceae (sedge) nutlets, the most numerous fruiting structures in the Sibudu Middle Stone Age archaeobotanical assemblage, occur in the shelter as a result of human activity, subsequent burial, and accidental carbonization when hearths were built directly above the buried nutlets.     

Cultural Theory and the Measurement of Deep Core Beliefs Within the Advocacy Coalition Framework

Deep core beliefs represent an important yet theoretically underspecified concept within the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF). This underspecification can (in part) be attributed to the ad hoc way in which ACF scholars have defined and measured the concept over time. To overcome this, we advocate the development and future use of a standardized metric for measuring deep core beliefs in ACF studies. Such a measure, we contend, should be multidimensional, generalizable, measurable using multiple techniques, and broad enough in scope to operate across virtually all policy domains. Using these criteria as our benchmark, we evaluate the viability of cultural theory (CT) as one such metric. In short, we find that CT meets all of these criteria, and therefore provides ACF scholars with a way to measure deep core beliefs across enduring public policy disputes that are demarcated by conflicting belief systems. Accordingly, we advocate its use in future studies.     

TIME‐OF‐FLIGHT NEUTRON DIFFRACTION CHARACTERIZATION OF CERAMIC FINDINGS FROM SOUTHERN AND WESTERN SICILY*

We present the results of a study that is part of a wider research programme regarding knowledge of the initial living phases of Sicilian agricultural and pastoral society. Three sets of ceramic samples were analysed through time‐of‐flight neutron diffraction (TOF‐ND) to derive information about the composition of the clay and the manufacturing techniques. The first two sets of sherds came from an excavation in Licata, close to Agrigento, and are composed of findings dated around the third century bc , while the third set was of samples from prehistoric sites located in the northwestern part of Sicily. Measurements were performed to obtain a quantitative identification of the mineralogical composition of the samples in a totally non‐destructive way. Hints about manufacturing techniques and firing temperatures are derived to provide information on provenance and production processes of the objects.     

MICROANALYTICAL METAL TECHNOLOGY STUDY OF ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN BRONZES FROM TELL BEYDAR*

Forty‐six bronze objects have been investigated to assess their composition and microstructure, using SEM–EDX and optical microscopy. The bronzes originate from Tell Beydar, a site in the northeastern part of Syria that was mainly occupied during the third millennium bc . The compositional results of the metals show a clear chronological sequence in the use of the alloying elements arsenic and tin. In addition, the microstructure indicates advancement in the metalworking techniques that were used.     

Study of the Technique and of the Materials of a 19th‐Century Polychrome Wood Mask from Papua New Guinea

This paper presents the results of the analysis carried out on a polychrome wood mask from Papua New Guinea during conservation work at Pigorini Museum's restoration laboratory. The significance of this study is that no prior work has characterized the painting materials of Papua New Guinea masks both with spectroscopic and internal microstratigraphic analysis. In fact, these objects were studied especially from an anthropological or conservative point of view and the wood was wrongly defined by its visual appearance. Microstratigraphic and spectroscopic investigations discovered a refined execution technique that up to now has not been demonstrated. The stratigraphy of the painted layers demonstrates a deep knowledge of the materials and of the application techniques on the part of the Papua New Guinea people, together with the ability to foresee the aesthetic result for the artefact. The analysis of the constitutive materials and of the stylistic features supplied valid results in favour of provenance of the mask from Papua New Guinea.     

The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project: In situ Preservation and Long-Term Monitoring of the Clarence (1850) and James Matthews (1841) Shipwreck Sites

Increasingly, archaeologists are opting for on-site examination, reinterment, and in situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites as the first option in the management of sites at risk, as opposed to the more traditional excavation, recovery, conservation, and display/storage methods. This decision will inevitably be based on significance assessment, degree of perceived risk, and resourcing issues. However, long-term monitoring must become an integral part of these management programmes in order to quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness of the in situ preservation techniques employed. In 2012 the Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project (AHSPP) was awarded a large Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant, enabling ten partner organizations and three Australian universities to collaborate in one of the largest multi-organizational maritime archaeology projects to be undertaken in Australia to date. One of the major aims of the project is to develop a protocol for the excavation, detailed recording and reburial of significant shipwrecks under threat, fostering a strategic national approach for the management of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites at risk. Two historically significant shipwreck sites that are considered under threat were chosen for this longitudinal comparative study — the Clarence (1850) located in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria; and the James Matthews (1841) which lies in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. Both sites have been preserved in situ using two very different but innovative remediation strategies. More importantly, long-term monitoring programmes have been implemented on both sites, which will characterize changes in the reburial environment and the effect on the reinterred materials. In this way, the efficacy of both in situ preservation techniques will be systematically tested, providing a comparative analysis of practical protocols for the long-term protection and management of underwater cultural heritage.     

Advances in Polychrome Ceramics in the Islamic World of the 12th Century AD

As part of a multidisciplinary programme of research on Islamic glazed pottery, the development of polychrome decoration during the 12th century AD has been investigated by examining polished sections through glazed pottery in an analytical scanning electron microscope. The two main decorative techniques used were underglaze and overglaze painting. The results suggest that true underglaze decoration, involving the application of pigment without any associated slip, was first developed in Syria, from where it spread to Iran, on to China and ultimately across wide areas of the world. In contrast, the overglaze technique used on mina'i ware was both very short‐lived and confined to Iran. The analytical results suggest that the probable explanation for this was the technical problems associated with maturing the overglaze paint and the consequent risk of unsatisfactory products.