Subsistence practices and pottery use in Neolithic Jordan: molecular and isotopic evidence

This paper presents direct evidence of subsistence practices and pottery use at a Late Neolithic site at al-Basatîn, northern Jordan. Measurable concentrations of C_16:0 and C_18:0 were recovered from 8 of 10 archaeological pottery fragments through use of a microwave-assisted silica gel and aminopropyl solvent protocol developed for the isolation and concentration of free fatty acids in marine sediments. Subsequent isotopic analysis of the surviving C_16:0 and C_18:0 saturated fatty acids revealed ∂¹³C ratios consistent with those of adipose fats of ruminant and non-ruminant animals pastured on lands adjacent to the Jordan Valley. The high recovery of diagnostic compounds from the al-Basatîn material is discussed in context of a wider examination of the initial development and use of pottery in the Fertile Crescent, and the emerging debate concerning the efficacy of stable carbon isotope values in characterizing organic residues embedded in pottery fragments recovered from the earliest ceramic horizons in the Middle East and Europe.     

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE PROCESSING OF MARINE ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND OTHER COMMODITIES CONTAINING POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS IN POTTERY VESSELS*

ω‐(o‐Alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids are known to form in vitro from triunsaturated fatty acids following protracted heating. These compounds have recently been identified in absorbed lipid extracts obtained from archaeological pottery vessels, providing a potentially valuable new class of indicator for the processing of commodities, such as marine oils, which contain high abundances of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Experiments were conducted to assess whether ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids form when pure compounds and complex triacylglycerol mixtures are heated with a fired clay. The results demonstrate that ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids are only produced following heating of unsaturated fatty acids (tri‐, di‐ and monounsaturated species) or complex unsaturated fatty acyl lipids at around 270°C. Heating saturated fatty acyl lipids does not yield ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids. Thus, when searching for evidence for the processing of marine derived animal fats in archaeological pottery vessels, it is essential that: ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids of carbon length C₁₈ and C₂₀ should be present, ideally with C₂₂ also detectable (if only in trace abundances), together with at least one of the three isoprenoid fatty acids (phytanic, pristanic or 4,8,12‐tetramethyltridecanoic acid).     

THE CHARACTERIZATION OF PAINTS AND WATERPROOFING MATERIALS FROM THE SHIPWRECKS FOUND AT THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE OF THE ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN HARBOUR OF PISA (ITALY)*

This work presents the results of a diagnostic survey on the shipwrecks from the archaeological site of the ancient harbour of San Rossore (Pisa, Italy). The original waterproofing, caulking and painting materials were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC–MS), energy‐dispersive X‐ray microanalysis (EDX) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD). The major constituents of the waterproofing and caulking materials detected on the planks were tricyclic abietanes showing a high degree of aromatization. These compounds are indicative of a pitch obtained from the wood of trees of the Pinaceae family. The analysis of the organic components of the paint samples revealed diterpenoid acids characteristic of Pinaceae resins together with linear long‐chain alcohols and fatty acids, highlighting the presence of beeswax. Noticeably, the characteristic odd carbon number alkanes that are normally present in beeswax were not detected. The EDX and XRD analyses showed that hematite, calcite, cerussite and kaolinite were employed as pigments to paint the ships’ hulls.     

A NEW METHOD FOR EXTRACTION,ISOLATION AND TRANSESTERIFICATION OF FREE FATTY ACIDS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTTERY

This paper presents evidence for increased recovery of organic residues from archaeological pottery through use of a microwave‐assisted liquid chromatography protocol. C_16:0 and C_18:0 saturated fatty acids were obtained from archaeological potsherds recovered from nine Neolithic settlements in the Middle East dating between 4700 and 7300 cal bc , including materials that had not produced evidence for the survival of any lipid species through use of ‘conventional’ solvent extraction techniques. Compound‐specific isotopic analyses of C_16:0 and C_18:0 fatty acids in potsherd extracts subsequently revealed δ¹³C/δ¹²C compositions consistent with modern subcutaneous fats of wild boar and goats pastured on lands adjacent to the Jordan Valley, and residues from a modern pottery vessel used in the manufacturing of butter, cheese and yogurt in central Turkey. These results are presented as an illustration of capabilities of the microwave‐assisted recovery protocol. The reclamation of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids from archaeological pottery fragments recovered from a number of the earliest ceramic horizons in the Middle East is herewith reported, and the extraction methods and instrumental analytical techniques are described.     

Application of lipid biomarker analysis to evaluate the function of ‘slab-lined pits’ in Arctic Norway

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and bulk carbon isotope determinations have been performed on samples (‘cemented organic residues’, charcoal, sediment and fire-cracked rock) excavated from 12 slab-lined pits from various locations in Arctic Norway to test the premise that these archaeological features were used for the extraction of oil from the blubber of marine mammals, such as seal, whale and walrus. A wide range of lipid compound classes were detected especially in the cemented organic residues and in the charcoal samples. The presence of long-chain unsaturated and isoprenoid fatty acids together with oxidation and thermal alteration products of unsaturated acids such as dicarboxylic acids, dihydroxyfatty acids and ω-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids suggests that these features were used for marine oil extraction at elevated temperatures. Notably the location of the hydroxyl groups in the dihydroxyfatty acids provides a record of the positional isomer of the precursor fatty acid and allows confirmation that 11-docosenoic (cetoleic) acid, the most abundant C_22:1 isomer in marine oil, was a major component of the original lipid. Further information was provided by the presence of long-chain fatty acyl moieties in surviving triacylglycerols and the presence of cholesterol. A fungal metabolite, mycose (trehalose), was found in all samples apart from a fire-cracked rock and points to microbiological activity in the pits. Bulk isotope analysis conducted on the ‘cemented organic residues’ is consistent with modern reference samples of blubber and oil from seal and whale. These data provide clear analytical evidence of the function of slab-lined pits in the archaeological record and suggest widespread exploitation of marine mammals for producing oil for heating, lighting and myriad other uses in the past.     

Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) marrow quality vs quantity: evaluating human decision-making and seasonal occupation in late Pleistocene Tasmania

A pilot study on the fatty acid composition of the bone marrow, brain tissue and muscle (flesh) of the medium-sized marsupial the Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus), aimed to explore the mechanisms behind the dominance of this human prey species in late Pleistocene southwest Tasmania. In particular it was designed to investigate why humans frequently selected and transported the wallaby hindquarters, breaking open their longbones and metatarsals to expose the marrow cavity, when these animals could easily have been transported whole. Initial results indicated that the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids particularly palmitoleic acid (C_16:1) and oleic acid (C_18:1) in the bone marrow increased distally away from the body core temperature or the heart, towards the hands and feet. There is a corresponding decrease in the percentage of the saturated fatty acids, particularly palmitic acid (C_16:0) and stearic acid (C_18:0). This is similar to the pattern identified in placental artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates) and rodents. The preliminary study was then expanded to a year-long seasonal experiment involving wallabies from different Tasmanian environmental and climatic zones to see if this can better help explain the apparent seasonal occupation of caves indicated from recent Bennett’s wallaby teeth annuli (Skeletochronological studies). It was found that the Bennett’s wallaby remained a relatively stable and dependable resource throughout the year, with environmental, altitudinal and seasonal variability having only a minor effect on the fatty acid composition or nutritional quality of their bone marrow, muscle and brain tissue. Interestingly, the animals had increased desirable unsaturated fatty acids in their marrow, muscle and brain during the winter and spring with decreased amounts during the summer and autumn. This lends support to an earlier Kidney Fat Index (KFI) analysis for the Bennett’s wallaby which recorded significant seasonal differences within and between regions, indicating an environmental effect on overall body condition. Fatty acid analysis of the Common wombat Vombatus ursinus, the Tasmanian pademelon Thylogale billardierii, and the Forester or Eastern Grey kangaroo Macropus giganteus were also included to ascertain why these animals remained constant, although minor, prey species throughout the late Pleistocene. While the results from these animals were similar to the Bennett’s wallaby, there were some unexpected and surprising patterns that require further investigation. All of these fatty acid analyses have important implications for understanding human decision-making and occupation of southwest Tasmania during the Last Glacial Maximum, for modern dietary and palaeodietary benefits, and for understanding the physiology of these unique Australian marsupials.     

Probing dietary change of the Kwädąy Dän Ts'ìnchį individual,an ancient glacier body from British Columbia: I. Complementary use of marine lipid biomarker and carbon isotope signatures as novel indicators of a marine diet

The remains of the preserved ice body from the Kwäd?y Dän Ts'ìnch? discovery were recovered from a retreating glacier in the Tatshenshini-Alsek Park, British Columbia in August 1999. Despite the remote location 80 km inland, bone collagen stable isotope analysis indicated that the individual spent much of his life in a region rich in marine foods (δ¹³C −13.7‰ and δ¹⁵N +17.9‰). Since finds of such bodies are exceptionally rare we undertook detailed lipid analyses in order to assess their preservation and determine whether they might provide new insights into the individual’s dietary life history. Molecular fingerprinting and compound-specific carbon isotope analysis were performed on individual lipids extracted from his bone (turnover approximately ≥1 year) and skin (turnover approximately several weeks). A considerable abundance was observed of C_12:0, C_14:0, C_16:0, C_16:1, C_18:0 and C_18:1 fatty acids (FAs), cholesterol and hydroxy FAs (the latter being decay products). Most unusual was the presence of long-chain hydroxy FAs (LCHFAs), 10- and 12-hydroxyeicosanoic acid and 10- and 12-hydroxydocosanoic acid, in the bone. The latter components are most likely the products of microbially mediated hydration of the double-bonds of C_20:1 and C_22:1 FAs, the latter almost certainly originating from the consumption of a largely marine-based diet. A suite of three isoprenoidal lipids, phytanic acid, pristanic acid and 4,8,12-trimethyltetradecanoic (TMTD) acid, was also detected supporting the notion of a significant marine component of the diet for a substantial part of his life. In contrast, the skin lipid composition was dominated by C_{16:0 FA}, with lower abundances being observed of the marine LCHFAs and isoprenoidal compounds, suggesting reduced reliance on coastal marine foods in the last period of life. This interpretation is supported by the enhanced marine dietary signal observed in the bone than skin FA δ¹³C values.     

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF A BOG BODY ADIPOCERE

Chemical analyses were carried out on adipocere obtained from a bog body recovered from a peat bog at Meenybradden, County Donegal, Ireland. Chromatographic (thin-layer chromatography and gas chromatography) and mass spectrometric analyses, combined with microanalytical chemical transformations, have yielded detailed compositional information. An absence of intact triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols and monoacylglycerols indicates that hydrolysis is complete. Consequently the adipocere is composed mainly of fatty carboxylic acids. The high proportion of palmitic and stearic acids, together with depleted oleic acid content, indicates that extensive reduction and, possibly, β-oxidation have occurred during burial in the peat bog. Hydration of the double-bond in oleic acid has also occurred, as is shown by the formation of 10-hydroxystearic acid. The monoenoic fatty carboxylic acids that are present, composed mainly of C₁₈ and C₁₆ compounds, comprise a mixture of positional isomers. The results are compared and contrasted with those obtained from previous studies of the lipid composition of other adipoceres and cadavers of archaeological interest.     

In search of the optimum Raman/IR signatures of potential ingredients used in San/Bushman rock art paint

Vibrational spectroscopy (Raman and FTIR) has played an important role in identifying pigments, substrata and deterioration products in rock art studies worldwide: in the laboratory and on-site. However, the detection of organic binders and carrying agents has so far been scarce and the quality of many spectra recorded on-site inadequate. In this study, possible pigments (charcoal, ochre, raptor faeces, thermally treated ostrich egg shell, etc.), binders (fat, egg, blood) and carrying agents (saliva, gall, egg, water) were selected based on artistic considerations and analysed with FTIR and Raman (514.6 and 785 nm excitation, both available in mobile instruments) spectroscopy in order to determine usable marker bands for each ingredient. The resultant marker bands were then used to analyse five ten year old San replica paints. It was found that FTIR spectroscopy is very efficient to identify organic compounds as there is no fluorescence but the broadness of the bands inhibits the exact assignment of many ingredients. A high fluorescence background experienced for many natural products prevented the recording of Raman spectra for all ingredients, in many instances though the sharp peaks usually associated with Raman spectra make identification easier than with FTIR spectroscopy. Most of the ingredients in the paints could be identified, but it is clear that better results are obtained when more that one technique is used.     

Automated Analysis of Environmental Degradation of Paint Residues

The development of effective conservation strategies for the protection of rock art sites involves the assessment of the taphonomic risks posed by physical and chemical weathering. This study outlines the methodology used in a pilot study to monitor and model the deterioration of paint residues in a cave environment. Mineral oxide pigments were mixed with water and placed on the walls of a cave in the Mendip hills (U.K.). The physical degradation of the paint residues was simulated visually and modelled mathematically. A training stage learning the characteristics of a reference image is followed by comparisons with this image as the test paints deteriorate. The study will be extended over three years and digital image processing will be used to quantify changes in the colour and dimensions of the test paints. The results will be correlated with micro-climatic variables. This methodology can be used to model taphonomic changes to rock art and other forms of imagery in differing environments.     

Molecular evidence for the mixing of Meat,Fish and Vegetables in Anglo‐Saxon coarseware from Hamwic,UK

Absorbed lipid residues from 24 seventh‐ to ninth‐century coarseware potsherds from the major Anglo‐Saxon trading centre of Hamwic (Southampton, UK) were analysed by gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC–MS) in order to reconstruct the dietary habits of its population. The results show that the vessels were used for preparing ruminant fats and leafy vegetables. In addition, evidence was found for a minor contribution of aquatic foods. Beeswax was found once and most probably relates to a sealing function or to honey. Remarkable features were: (i) the isomeric mixture of octadecenoic acid (C_18:1 Δ^{7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16}) and 8‐ to 16‐hydroxyoctadecanoic acid, and (ii) the co‐occurrence of C_17:1, C_19:1 and isoprenoid fatty acids. These features were proposed as biomarkers for ruminant and aquatic food sources, respectively. Furthermore, the carbonyl position distribution in mid‐chain ketones was used to identify mixtures of animal‐ and plant‐derived ketones. The paper highlights the difficulty in interpreting complex lipid signatures that show a mixture of various foods, as observed in the majority of the samples. This was linked to the preparation of stews or the recycling of vessels. The results are considered alongside ceramic usewear data and existing data relating to environmental remains recovered from the Hamwic excavations.     

Dairying in antiquity. II. Evidence from absorbed lipid residues dating to the British Bronze Age

Molecular and isotopic analyses were undertaken of absorbed lipid residues from 256 pottery vessels obtained from four southern British Bronze Age sites (Potterne, Brean Down, Black Patch and Trethellan Farm). The results confirm that not only were Ancient Britons utilising dairy products during this period, but also that they were processed in pottery vessels on a large scale. This has been demonstrated through the determination of the compound-specific stable isotope values of the principal fatty acids found in animal fats (C_16:0 and C_18:0) that allows ruminant dairy and ruminant/non-ruminant adipose fats to be distinguished. The proportion of sherds yielding degraded dairy fats at each of the sites is variable, with the highest occurrence being from Potterne, and the lowest occurrence being from Black Patch. The faunal remains, and vessel characteristics (e.g. rim diameter and vessel type) are compared with the organic residue analyses, and intra-site variability is investigated at Trethellan Farm.     

GC–MS ANALYSIS AND FATTY ACID RATIOS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTSHERDS FROM THE WESTERN GREAT BASIN OF NORTH AMERICA*

The study of organic residues in archaeological pottery has focused on fatty acids due to their relative stability and longevity. However, even these compounds are subject to degradation, which makes assignment of residues to original foods problematic. This paper suggests that the use of ratios of fatty acids that degrade at roughly the same rate can be useful to identify very general categories of foods. It compares independent information on pot function based on ethnography and engineering/technological studies to that reconstructed based on extracted fatty acid ratios. The results support the notion that Great Basin pots were used primarily to boil seeds and that pot shape and pot function were related.     

Fractal analysis of veins in Permian carbonate rocks in the Lingtanchang anticline,western China

Statistical analysis of the thickness distribution of veins in the Lingtanchang structure, southern Sichuan basin, western China, indicates that vein thickness conforms to fractal character and a power‐law distribution, whereas various distributions of veins are indicated by both the spacing distribution and the C_v values. According to geometry and structure, the veins in the Lingtanchang structure can be divided into confined and through‐going veins. The statistical analyses show that confined intralayer veins are consistent with a power‐law distribution in thickness, with D_t values of 1.1–1.7 and a log‐normal distribution in spacing with C_v values of 0.8–0.9. The confined intra‐ to interlayer veins show D_t values of 1.0–1.3 and an exponential distribution in spacing, with C_v values of 0.9–1.0, indicating an unconnected vein network with weak ability for paleofluid flow. However, the through‐going veins show the lowest D_t values of 0.6–0.8 with a power‐law distribution in thickness and power‐law to exponential distribution in spacing with C_v values of 1.5–3.2. Differences in spacing distribution and in the thickness of veins can be explained by different stages of vein growth from confined to through‐going veins. Such processes are dominant with percolating cluster models, which significantly controls spatial distribution of veins and paleofluid flow, and therefore the reservoir conditions in the southern Sichuan basin.     

Reconstructing subsistence at the Yingpanshan and Gaoshan sites in Sichuan province,China: Insights from isotope analysis on bone samples and charred crop remains

During the Neolithic period, the Chengdu Plain was a key region where two important crops, rice and millet, were cultivated together. Millet was probably introduced from north-western China c.3500–3300 cal. bce , and rice came from the Middle Yangtze River c.2600 cal. bce . In this study, human and faunal remains, as well as charred crop grains, were collected from the Yingpanshan (3300–2600 cal. bce ) and Gaoshan (2500–2000 cal. bce ) sites where the dominant crop was millet and rice, respectively. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses were conducted on human bones and the ecofact samples in order to reconstruct the subsistence at the sites. The results indicate that the diets of two individuals recovered from the Yingpanshan site consisted of both C₃- and C₄-based foods, predominantly the former. By contrast, Yingpanshan pigs consumed a large quantity of C₄ fodder. This result, combined with the ecofact evidence, suggests that millet was the main crop at the Yingpanshan site. It also highlights the fact that the two Yingpanshan individuals might be non-locals and/or belonged to later periods. On the other hand, the diet of the Gaoshan community was dominated by C₃-based foods. When considering the archaeobotanical evidence at Baodun, a site contemporaneous with and near to the Gaoshan site, it can be stated that rice was an important food resource for the Gaoshan community. This study also suggests how crops were managed at the two sites. The Yingpanshan people might have used manure for growing millet. Both manuring and irrigation might have also been practised by Gaoshan's rice farmers. However, more studies are required to understand the extent of manuring and irrigation in their agricultural economies.     

Dairying in antiquity. I. Evidence from absorbed lipid residues dating to the British Iron Age

The evidence for dairying in antiquity has, until recently, primarily been restricted to the reconstruction of herd structures through the analysis of faunal remains. Using this method alone cannot provide definitive evidence for the presence of dairy herds, due to differences in the recovery of animal bones at sites and the many different farming strategies that can affect herd structures (e.g. dairying, meat production, traction etc.). Absorbed lipid residues have been extracted from 237 pottery vessels from the British Iron Age sites of Maiden Castle, Danebury Hillfort, Yarnton Cresswell Field and Stanwick. The compound-specific stable carbon isotope (δ¹³C values) of the principal fatty acids found in animal fats (C_16:0 and C_18:0) have allowed the direct detection of dairy fats, thus providing evidence that dairying was an important component of farming practices in the British Iron Age. The results are compared to assessments of the faunal remains at each of the sites, and correlations between morphological characteristics of the vessels (e.g. type, form, use wear and rim diameter) and lipid residue discussed.     

MULTIANALYTICAL STUDY OF PALAEOLITHIC REINDEER ANTLER. DISCOVERY OF ANTLER TRACES IN LASCAUX PIGMENTS BY TEM*

Palaeolithic and modern reindeer antler were analysed using complementary techniques to evaluate the conservation state of bone material. X‐ray diffraction, FT‐IR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDX) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM–EDX) as well as proton induced X‐ray and γ‐ray emission (PIXE–PIGE) at the particle accelerator AGLAE, C2RMF were applied. This study enabled us to define the chemical and structural features of ancient antler at the micro‐ and nanometre scale and compare them to those of other bone materials such as bone and ivory. Antler is richer in its organic fraction compared to bone and ivory. Its mineral fraction, carbonated hydroxylapatite, shows very specific crystal shapes at the nanometre scale. This specific property allowed us to recognize antler traces in pigment samples originating from rock art paintings in the Lascaux cave, Dordogne, southwestern France, Magdalenian period. Therefore, TEM–EDX is the technique of choice for characterizing antler traces in complex mixtures. In the paint material of Lascaux, antler seems most likely to be a pollutant introduced either by stirring the pigments in water with a piece of antler or by carving antler artefacts next to the preparation of paint material. However, it could eventually be used as a marker of paintings that were created contemporaneously.     

ANALYSIS OF NASRID POLYCHROME CARPENTRY AT THE HALL OF THE MEXUAR PALACE,ALHAMBRA COMPLEX (GRANADA,SPAIN), COMBINING MICROSCOPIC,CHROMATOGRAPHIC AND SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS*†

The pigments, binders and execution techniques used by the Nasrids (1238–1492) to polychrome carpentry in the Hall of the Mexuar Palace at the Alhambra (Granada, Spain) were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with EDX analysis, selective staining techniques and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. This pioneering investigation presents the first results of a research project devoted to filling gaps in the knowledge of Nasrid art, traditionally approached by stylistic studies. Moreover, it is essential for the polychromy conservation of the studied artworks, and will help to clarify historical and painting uncertainties in the Alhambra monument. The palette consists of a limited range of colours: white (lead‐base pigment), red (cinnabar and red lead), blue (lapis lazuli), black (carbon‐based) and false gold (golden tin). Tempera grassa was the painting technique identified. Two types of grounds were used: (i) gypsum in calligraphy decoration for the false gold technique, and (ii) synthetic minium in geometric drawings in carpentry. Organic insulating layers of linseed oil were used between paint strata. Artists applied synthetic minium to protect the wood (Juglans regia and conifer) against attack by xylophages. To lighten the surface darkened by this ground layer, powdered tin was added to achieve a metallic lustre.     

Trends in pig product processing at British Neolithic Grooved Ware sites traced through organic residues in potsherds

Gas chromatography (GC), GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC-combustion-isotope ratio MS (GC-C-IRMS) analyses of absorbed and surface lipid residues preserved in potsherds were used to explore the extent of pig product processing exploitation in the later British Neolithic Grooved Ware tradition. Assessments were made regarding whether porcine lipids were associated with specific Grooved Ware traits, i.e. decoration, substyle, geographical area and type of site. Two hundred and twenty-two Grooved Ware potsherds were analysed, 70% of which contained lipid concentrations considered significant (>5 μg g⁻¹). All the lipid residues were dominated by animal fats, although plant and beeswax were also detected in a small number of extracts. δ¹³C values of the major fatty acid components of degraded animal fats (C_16:0 and C_18:0) were determined for 126 extracts and used to assign ruminant or porcine origins to the residues; 16% of these were found to have a predominantly porcine isotope signature. Statistical associations with pig exploitation were shown to exist with substyle, geographical area and site type, whereas, no relationship was seen between decoration and the type of commodity processed. Intact triacylglycerols were preserved in 19% of the sherds; half of these had distributions consistent with the identifications based on δ¹³C values, the remainder differed either due to the presence of mixed commodities or because lower molecular weight homologues had been lost due to degradation. In addition to the detection of pig exploitation, results from lipid residue analysis showed a good correlation with faunal assemblages, suggesting that stable isotope analysis may be used as a proxy for animal exploitation at sites where bones have not survived.     

The Source of Iron‐Oxide Pigments Used in Pecos River Style Rock Paints

The likely sources of iron‐oxide pigments used in prehistoric rock paintings in the Lower Pecos Archaeological Region were identified on the basis of chemical fingerprinting using LA–ICP–MS. The chemical signatures of 13 red rock paint samples collected from two south‐west Texas sites were compared with three potential source materials (ochre, siltstone and rhyolite), and two pigment cakes (crayons) that were excavated near the sampling sites. The significant chemical similarities between the paint and siltstones suggest that siltstone was used as the source of the colour. The overlapping chemical signatures for one of the pigment cakes and siltstone further suggests that some of the prehistoric people inhabiting the area 3000–4000 years ago had acquired the skills to extract iron oxide from siltstone and process it into paint pigments.