何为“冷战”?——西方英语学界关于“冷战”的界定与研究范畴的争论

“冷战”作为概念最初是指美苏之间“不是和平的和平”的状态。到了1947年下半年，杜鲁门政府将与苏联的“冷战”对抗作为美国对外干涉的战略。20世纪50年代中期，冷战对抗延伸到亚非拉国家。冷战时期西方学者就已经开始研究冷战，关注的是冷战的起源和两个超级大国的对抗。与冷战两极对立一样，学者们有关“冷战”的界定和范畴的观点泾渭分明，针锋相对。冷战时期的西方学者主要依赖美国档案，从事以美国为中心的冷战研究。冷战结束之后，美国之外的历史学家提出“冷战研究去中心化”的议题，希望不要仅仅从超级大国的视角来观察和研究冷战，提出强化对冷战时期超级大国对第三世界干涉的研究，这使冷战研究的地理范畴大大扩展，成为过去30多年冷战研究的一个热点。尽管有学者坚持认为，冷战是美国的国家项目，但事实上，冷战既是美国历史的一部分，也是全球史的一部分。     

国际政治中的“文明冲突”范式新解——重读亨廷顿的《文明的冲突？》

美国学者亨廷顿的“文明冲突”论在国际政治学界引起了激烈而持久的争论。中国学者对它的评论大多局限于政策性的评价与立场性的批判。本文认为,“文明冲突”论对于如何看待冷战后全球政治的发展趋势提供了一个全新的视角和理论范式。本文试图从学理上与政治思想上对“文明冲突”范式的理论假设前提、该范式的内涵界定以及文明的未来走向等问题做出客观评析。     

论近代法国民族主义运动的蜕变——从“左翼”民族主义到“右翼”民族主义

西方学者普遍认为,近代法国民族主义在19世纪后半叶经历了一次“右转弯”,即从“左翼”民族主义向“右翼”民族主义过渡。事实上,这种过渡不在于“左翼”民族主义的急流勇退和“右翼”民族主义的狂飙突进,而在于“左”、“右”两翼先后垄断民族主义话语。在这一蜕变过程中,“左”、“右”两翼都保留了各自的民族主义传统,并于第一次世界大战前夕实现了“神圣联合”。     

“争夺心灵和思想”——20世纪50-60年代美国对华心理宣传战初探

20世纪50—60年代,为争夺意识形态和思想文化阵地,美国对新中国实施了以冷战宣传为主要形式的心理战。美国对华冷战宣传计划的主要内容包括:广播渗透、播撒传单、涉藏反华宣传、针对中国研制和试爆第一颗原子弹开展心理"反宣传"计划。50年代的心理宣传计划,带有明显的战时色彩,特别是朝鲜战争期间,其心理宣传攻势直接服务于战争需要。60年代,美国对华冷战宣传呈现出新的特点,主要表现为冷战宣传手段的多样性和受众的广泛性。美国对华开展的大量负面冷战宣传势必对中国国家形象产生一定的消极影响,塑造了西方民众对中国的刻板印象。这种冷战宣传触及了东西方对抗的本质——意识形态和思想观念的冲突。通过对华心理宣传,美国试图借助文化产品的输出公开或隐蔽地推销其社会意识形态,旨在达到促使中国国家体制发生变更的基本目标。     

20世纪五六十年代美国在香港的意识形态宣传和渗透

20世纪五六十年代,为了将香港打造成为展示西方民主价值观的"橱窗",美国政府开展了多种形式的意识形态宣传和渗透活动。美国通过向香港输出文化产品,援助部分知识分子,公开或隐蔽地推销其社会意识形态,旨在达到促使中国"和平演变"的目标。美国的上述活动影响深远,对当代香港社会和民众心理带来了不容忽视的负面影响,当今香港青年人价值观呈现的西化趋势与冷战时期美国的意识形态宣传和渗透活动不无关系。     

近年来国内关于美国对华经济遏制史研究述评

美国对华经济遏制史是亚洲冷战史的一个重要组成部分,它从经济角度解读冷战时期美国如何对社会主义中国进行遏制以配合美国亚洲冷战战略,从而服务于其全球冷战战略。相对于亚洲冷战史中的政治对抗、军事对峙、意识形态对立等问题的研究而言,我国国内对冷战史中关于美国对华经济遏制战略制定及实施的研究则起步较晚。随着改革开放和中国学逐渐走出国门,我国学在利用20世纪90年代美国国内新解密的件和西方学术界已有的研究成果的基础之上,在最近10年内取得了相当多的成果。     

“文化转向”与美国冷战宣传史研究的兴起和嬗变

美国冷战宣传史研究的"文化转向"是沿着文化分析、国内因素考量和帝国视角三个方向行进的。学者们采用文化视角把美国对苏联东欧的心理战解读为向海外投射美国国家身份和文化;用组织文化和政治文化概念探讨宣传制度机构分合演变背后的根源,把冷战宣传解读为美国政治文化和"自由国际主义"外交理念的产物;借鉴后殖民视角,把冷战宣传解读为一种追求无形控制的"文化帝国主义"战略。推动这一转变发生的原因在于,学界并未仅仅把对外宣传视为对外部因素回应的产物,而是积极探寻其在美国国内和美国文化层面的历史根源。从这个意义上讲,学术界在大力提倡冷战"国际史"的同时,也应该重视冷战"国家史"的方面,注意外交政策制定中的国内因素和动力。     

美国的冷战意识形态:内容与作用

冷战时期的美国外交政策受到由下列三套相互联系的观念构成的冷战意识形态的深刻影响:建立在自由主义基础上的反共主义和输出民主的理想;从民族主义衍生出来的国家伟大、全球责任和(自由)世界领袖信念;源自种族主义的东方主义偏见和文化等级观念。正是美国的冷战意识形态把美苏冲突建构成自由与极权两种生活方式之间的斗争,使冷战超越单纯的地缘政治争夺变成争夺人心的较量,冷战在某种意义上是美国的意识形态工程。     

近代英国文明转型与公司制度创新

正近代英国率先开启了工业文明,因而长期以来受到国内外学者的关注。然而,从文明范式的角度来认识近代英国文明转型与公司制度创新,还是一个新课题。"文明范式"最初是冷战结束后一些西方学者理解和把握世界政治现实的分析框架。正如美国学者亨廷顿所说:"人们所认同并为之奋斗甚至献出生命的,正是信念与家庭、血缘与信仰。文明冲突取代冷战,成为全球政治的主要现象,其原因就在于此。文明范式能够成为更好的选项,成为理     

西方视野下的中苏关系破裂原因探析——以《中国季刊》为研究视角

中苏关系破裂是当代中国史研究中不可忽略的重要问题。从西方视角特别是《中国季刊》所刊发的文章可以看出,西方学者大多立足于国家利益发展来看待中苏关系问题。因此,他们认为个人因素作用可以忽略不计;意识形态论战只是中苏关系破裂的表象,核心问题是中苏国家利益冲突,其中政治和军事因素是中苏关系破裂的主要原因。西方学者对中苏关系的分析既有一定的客观性,也有一定的片面性,如没有分析共同利益对中苏关系的聚合作用,分析视角在一定程度上体现了冷战时期西方国家对中苏关系发展走向的期待等。     

Temps, succession,cogito

In the following pages I consider how Descartes argues the thesis of a permanent, continuous and actual thinking represented by expressionscogito andsum cogitans. Of this thesis I only examine the reasoning leading to those expressions first and then reasoning upon the same, single expressions, I found the continuity of thinking breaks off when the mind, set aside the dubious or deceitful opinions, meets with the clear and distinct ideas, and when it meets with the succession of ideas. In both these cases there emerged a kind of interruption which should have prevented the philosopher from writing «cogito» and «sum cogitans», that is from making use of a verbal form just meaning an actual and continuous action.     

Cesare Beccaria's influence on English discussions of punishment, 1764–1789

The impact of Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments on English discussions of punishment in the twenty-five years following its publication is assessed, with attention being paid to Beccaria's combination of contractarian and early utilitarian thinking. It is argued that Beccaria's influence was particularly striking in England in that he stimulated two disparate strands of reform thinking. The first being exemplified in the work of William Eden, and taking the form of a contractarian, humanitarian version, which owed something to William Blackstone, but was ultimately quite distinct. The second represented in Jeremy Bentham's theory of punishment with its emphasis overwhelmingly on utilitarian calculation.     

Cesare Beccaria's influence on English discussions of punishment, 1764–1789

The impact of Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments on English discussions of punishment in the twenty-five years following its publication is assessed, with attention being paid to Beccaria's combination of contractarian and early utilitarian thinking. It is argued that Beccaria's influence was particularly striking in England in that he stimulated two disparate strands of reform thinking. The first being exemplified in the work of William Eden, and taking the form of a contractarian, humanitarian version, which owed something to William Blackstone, but was ultimately quite distinct. The second represented in Jeremy Bentham's theory of punishment with its emphasis overwhelmingly on utilitarian calculation.     

Systems thinking within the scope of education for sustainable development (ESD) – a heuristic competence model as a basis for (science) teacher education

Systems thinking is regarded as a key competence in the field of education for sustainable development (ESD), because it helps students to understand the complexity and dynamics of natural, social and economic systems. In our research group, we developed a competence model that distinguishes four dimensions of systems thinking in ESD. Based on this model, we designed different university courses in biology and geography teacher education and measured their effects on student teachers’ systems thinking and the pedagogical content knowledge for teaching systems thinking with two different tests. Both variables could be effectively promoted depending on the course.     

1. THE DEFINING CHARACTER OF CHINESE HISTORICAL THINKING1

Imbued with profound historical consciousness, the Chinese people are Homo historiens in every sense of the term. To be human in China, to a very large extent, is to be historical, which means to live up to the paradigmatic past. Therefore, historical thinking in traditional China is moral thinking. The Chinese historico‐moral thinking centers around the notion of Dao, a notion that connotes both Heavenly principle and human norm. In view of its practical orientation, Chinese historical thinking is, on the one hand, concrete thinking and, on the other, analogical thinking. Thinking concretely and analogically, the Chinese people are able to communicate with the past and to extrapolate meanings from history. In this way, historical experience in China becomes a library in which modern readers may engage in creative dialogues with the past.     

Sacred Narratives in Secular Contexts

Although sacred narratives are thought to have lost their numinous aura for secular receivers (readers/listeners), their presence is evident whenever mythology, usually taken to reflect a mode of thinking typical of primeval cultures, and its associated themes are used in fictional works. This study aims at elucidating sacred narratives for people who do not subscribe to their sacredness. It attempts to show (1) that myths reflect a fictional mode of thinking; (2) that meaningful myths map the unconscious drives of secular readers/listeners, enabling them to confront them in terms of their own culture; and (3) that fictional thinking thus operates as a psychical laboratory. I illustrate these claims through myths that feature animosity between parents and children, such as the stories of Oedipus, Isaac, and Jesus.     

Teaching critical thinking in world regional geography through stakeholder debate

Using a stakeholder debate based on a real-world case of regional construction – that of Turkey's application to join the European Union – improved students' critical thinking in an introductory world regional geography course. Such courses are a staple offering among US geography departments, and often the only exposure of non-majors to geographic thinking. A stakeholder debate highlighting regional construction, using structured learning activities and reflection on their own thinking, improved students' critical thinking. We describe the stakeholder debate and its revision after one semester, and provide data from assessment and thematic coding of students' reflection papers.     

A capabilities approach to higher education: geocapabilities and implications for geography curricula

A geographical education offers more than skills, subject knowledge and generic attributes. It also develops a set of discipline-specific capabilities that contribute to a graduate’s future learning and experience, granting them special ways of thinking for lifelong development and for contributing to the welfare of themselves, their community and their world. This paper considers the broader purposes and values of disciplinary teaching in contributing to individual human development. Set in the context of recent debates concerning the role of the university and the neo-liberalisation of higher education this paper explores approaches to developing the geography curriculum in ways that re-assert the educational value of geographical thinking for students. Using international examples of teaching and learning practice in geography, we recognise five geocapabilities: use of the geographical imagination; ethical subject-hood with respect to the impacts of geographical processes; integrative thinking about society–environment relationships; spatial thinking; and the structured exploration of places. A capabilities approach offers a productive and resilient response to the threats of pedagogic frailty and increasingly generic learning in higher education. Finally, a framework to stimulate dialogue about curriculum development and the role of geocapabilities in the higher education curriculum is suggested.     

Oil in the Arctic 2. The Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program

Abstract

Organic chemists are qualified by their knowledge of reaction mechanisms to attempt to predict outlines of biosynthetic sequences leading to natural molecules. The subject is an art, rather than a science, involving several interwoven strands of creative thinking. The evolutions of ideas, distinct from the discovery of facts, are difficult to elucidate from the published literature, and are explored in connection with alkaloids, flavonoids polyketides, and some terpenoids. The advantages and limitations of the chemists' type of thinking are examined with some of the reasons why biochemists have tended to ignore their hypotheses.     

空间思维观下的山地旅游开发理念刍论——以陕西省镇巴县为例

从空间思维理论出发,探讨空间思维理论在山地旅游开发中应用。通过引入空间思维并剖析它的内涵,在思维对象、思维方式、思维过程等方面对旅游开发进行指导;之后浅析了山地旅游开发理论,归纳出山地旅游开发的理论模式;并进行综合,运用点式思维、线式思维、面式思维、体式思维等空间思维理念模式于山地旅游开发之中;最后以陕西省镇巴县山地旅游开发为例,进行验证。