Epilepsia Verminosa*

Epilepsy is a major public health threat in the developing world, with much higher prevalence and incidence rates than those observed in developed countries. At present, one of the most common causes for epilepsy worldwide is the parasitic worm, Taenia solium, and the associated neurocysticercosis (NCC) that may often result from this infestation. Worm infestation was already recognized as a cause of epilepsy by the middle of the 18th century. Helminths and their effects on health were a daily medical concern in the 18th and 19th centuries with prevailing views ranging from the beneficial effects of the presence of adult worms in the gut, to considering them as culprits for a wide variety of diseases. A number of cases followed longitudinally by various nineteenth-century French physicians showed that there was good reason to believe that the verminous influence on seizures was real, as the expulsion of the T. solium often coincided with a notable amelioration of symptoms. Several theories were proposed to account for how the worms could lead to Epilepsia nervosa, including notions of competition for nutritional resources between the host and the parasite, and irritation of the medulla and of peripheral nerve endings predisposing to epileptiform episodes. Recently, after almost a century of quiet, interest in the neurological effects of helminths has been rekindled, due in part to the growing number of cases in the United States with NCC-related neurological disorders. In this article, we review the history of our understanding of the relationship between seizure disorders and parasitic worms, and we relate this history to contemporary epidemiologic and public health issues in developing countries.     

20世纪发展中国家城市化历史反思——以拉丁美洲和印度为主要对象的分析

本文考察了发展中国家在20世纪的城市化历史,指出了城市化的特点和问题,并分析了它们的原因。20世纪发展中国家的城市化历史为我国今后的城市化提供了三个方面的重要启示：一、把握城市化的速度与城市生活质量的关系。城市化水平虽然体现一个国家或地区社会经济发展水平,但不是衡量社会经济发展水平的唯一指标。推进城市化要以城市能够为它的居民提供更为优良的工作和生活环境为主要目标。二、在很大程度上,健康的城市化需要与乡村共同发展。农村和农业的不发展是发展中国家过度城市化的根源。三、要处理好工业化与城市化的关系。追求新型的工业化具有战略意义,但现实的社会状况仍需要发展劳动密集型工业以缓解就业压力。     

Occupational neurotoxicity and movement disorders: a historical perspective

It is shown that while metal toxicity has been known to be associated with risks to the health of miners and other workers for over a thousand years generally little was done before the 19th century to enquire into the relationship between lead, mercury, and manganese and neurological movement disorders. Reasons for this are suggested.     

Historical perspective: The British contribution to the understanding of neurocysticercosis

Neurocysticercosis, or brain infestation with the larval stage of Taenia solium, is the most common risk factor for epilepsy in many endemic regions of the world. Hardly any cases are seen in Western developed countries, including Britain. However, a sizeable number (n = 450) was seen among British soldiers returning from deputation to India, then a British colony, first reported by Col. MacArthur at the Queen Alexandria Military Hospital in 1931. Here, we review the influence of the perceptive observations of British Army medics on the understanding of the parasitic disorder. The majority of these people presented with epilepsy. Among the contributions of the army medics were establishing the diagnosis, initially by histological examination of subcutaneous and muscular infestation, and later by radiography, clarifying the prognosis and the role of medical and surgical treatments and uncovering the close relationship between the larval (cysticercosis) and adult (intestinal tapeworm) stages of T. solium.     

Sanitized Modernity: Rural Public Health in Mid-Twentieth Century Khuzestan

Existing histories of public health in Iran often center on elite or urban narratives. This paper shifts the focus to Iran’s villages by examining the twentieth century public health history of rural northern Khuzestan. It argues that Khuzestani villagers desired, rather than resisted, modern medical services. However, vertical decision-making and the prioritization given by public health planners to economic concerns over social well-being led to the uneven distribution of services and failure to fulfill the expectations of Khuzestan’s villagers. This paper uses memoirs, official reports, correspondence, and other records from the Development & Resources Corporation, along with reports from Iran’s Ministry of Education and Ministry of Health, to bring a richer picture of Iranian villagers’ twentieth century history into focus.     

Department of Neurosurgery,Seoul National University College of Medicine: 50th Anniversary (1957–2007) by History Compilation Committee (Chair: Young Seob Chung)

The public opinion and the scientific community incorrectly believe that the English term “lunatic” was originally related only to insanity, but it also referred to epileptic people. The aim of this article is to clarify the original meaning of the English word “lunatic” by analyzing the evolution of the relationship between psychiatric and neurological diseases and by pointing out the influence of the moon in the history of medicine, in popular traditions, and in English literature. The article also contains a detailed and accurate review of the modern scientific literature on the relationship between moon and epilepsy/psychiatric disorders.     

The disease of the moon: the linguistic and pathological evolution of the English term "lunatic"

The public opinion and the scientific community incorrectly believe that the English term "lunatic" was originally related only to insanity, but it also referred to epileptic people. The aim of this article is to clarify the original meaning of the English word "lunatic" by analyzing the evolution of the relationship between psychiatric and neurological diseases and by pointing out the influence of the moon in the history of medicine, in popular traditions, and in English literature. The article also contains a detailed and accurate review of the modern scientific literature on the relationship between moon and epilepsy/psychiatric disorders.     

不平衡的发展:20世纪与现代化

20世纪历史的主题是现代化,20世纪重大历史事件都围绕现代化展开。就不发达国家而言,现代化对他们的冲击逼迫它们做出回应,于是就出现众多的革命、改良、和民族独立战争。就发达国家而言,经济大萧条和两次世界大战似乎表明它们的“现代化”已经出现问题了,于是它们进入“修正”现代化的阶段。一方面是现代化的全球扩张,一方面是“修正”现代化的努力,这两种相反趋势造成20世纪历史的矛盾发展,“不平衡”引发出无数的“多元化”。     

The 18th-century traditions of representation in a new age of revolution

What happened to shared historical experiences in the discursive processes of constitutional reform in Sweden and Finland? This article examines the use of 18th-century history in early 20th-century politics. Building on a long-term survey of Swedish and Finnish estate and parliamentary debates, it analyses the political implications of differing national historiographies in the two successor states of the 18th-century Swedish realm, focusing on how the ancient past and collective (and often selective) memories of the Age of Absolutism, the Age of Liberty and the Gustavian Age were used by parliamentarians in constitutional debates. The analysis demonstrates how the Finnish polity continued to be profoundly influenced by these 18th-century constitutions even after the Russian Revolution, while Sweden took the post-French Revolution constitution of 1809 as its point of departure. In both countries, interpretations of the long 18th century were ideologically motivated in an age of the parliamentarization of government and the democratization of the representative system. This leads us to a discussion of the history-political significance of the common and differing understandings of representative government in the two interconnected countries.     

Changing Notions of Authenticity: Presenting a Castle Over Four Centuries

Bolsover Castle is a 17th‐century mock‐medieval castle built for the Cavendish family. First impressions suggest that its Pillar Parlour has survived with little alteration for nearly four centuries. In reality, there have been minor but telling changes to its fabric. The 18‐century Cavendishes venerated the castle as a shrine to their ancestors. Bolsover’s 19th‐century tenants recreated a romantic Olden Time appearance. The public bodies responsible for the castle in the 20th century used archaeology to reconstruct its 17th‐century form. In each case, these custodians aimed to present the site ‘authentically’, but their work reveals their own contemporary readings of the castle’s history. This evidence, gathered for a Conservation Plan, allowed English Heritage’s re‐display of the castle (1996–2001) to take a more reflective and positive approach to creating new meanings. This use of history to create local important meanings should give good cheer to those managing similar small but significant sites across the world.     

论霍布斯鲍姆的史学思想

霍布斯鲍姆是英国马克思主义历史学家,同时也是国际历史学界新社会史学派的代表人物。霍布斯鲍姆在马克思主义历史观指导下,改造西方历史学界的社会史观,重视下层社会的研究,形成颇具特色的新社会史观,使马克思主义史学在西方学术界尤其是历史学界得到发展和创新。作为以马克思主义为指导来研究历史的学者,霍布斯鲍姆在继承传统历史学理论的基础上,研究现实历史发展的进程,对历史、历史学家、19—20世纪历史学发展、历史研究的预测、历史研究的技术等问题发表了新见解,为历史学的发展提供了新的思想资源,奠定了他在20世纪国际历史学界的地位。     

Debating the moral and economic foundations of a democratic polity

From around the middle of the 18th century, agrarian reforms came on the agenda in most countries of western Europe. Although Norway’s economy was not manorial like that of Denmark and much of the rest of the continent, a debate emerged on how to improve Norwegian agriculture as well. Contrary to what the idealized picture of the typical Norwegian peasant might make us believe, the Norwegian right of redemption, odelsretten, was at the heart of these discussions. This article explores the differing opinions voiced over the ancient familial right from the viewpoint of intellectual history, drawing on the European historiography on political languages and the rise of commercial society and arguing that they should be interpreted as different responses to the societal changes caused by the economic growth in Norway from the middle of the 18th century.     

18世纪欧洲关于古典世界历史的学术

18世纪欧洲的古史研究继承了文艺复兴的遗产,在文献搜集和整理、史实考订、考古学和碑铭学等领域都取得了一定的进展。法国和英国学者在此基础上,撰写了一批多卷本、大部头的古代史、希腊史和罗马史著作。虽然这些著述的质量无法与19世纪专业史学的成果相比,但它们为19世纪的讨论设定了问题的框架,提出了众多值得重视的看法。学者们经世致用的精神,为后世树立了良好榜样,对当时实际的政治生活和思想发展都产生了一定影响。     

战争对俄国发展道路的影响

俄罗斯以军事立国.莫斯科公国时代,经常性的战争状态导致了动员型社会、国家战时体制、专制主义统治和农奴制度的形成.但从16世纪到18世纪,对外战争迫使沙皇政权学习和引进西方文化以增强军事和经济力量,从而推动了俄国的欧化进程.19世纪以来,几次大的对外战争深刻地影响了俄罗斯发展道路的选择,而建立军事强国和追求帝国利益的传统目标在其中起了关键作用.     

Cribra orbitalia and cribra cranii in Roman skeletal remains from the Ravenna area and Rimini (I–IV century AD)

Cribra orbitalia and cribra cranii are considered good indicators of the health and nutritional status of ancient populations, as their presence is often associated with chronic acquired anaemia. The distribution of these lesions in two Roman samples from the Ravenna area and Rimini was considered as a measure of health in relation to their respective environments. Enamel hypoplasia was also assessed as it is symptomatic of childhood physiological stresses such as malnutrition, infectious diseases, physiological traumas, and the like. The differential analysis suggests that the lesions observed are due to chronic acquired anaemia, probably caused by a poor diet, worm infestation, infections and parasitic diseases. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

From Siam to New York: Jacques May and the ‘foundation’ of medical geography

The history of medical geography is marked by a search for ancestors. The story usually begins in the writing of Hippocrates before re-emerging in the works of 18th and 19th century practitioners. In recent years, historical geographers have called for the destabilising of such assertions of lineage and descent. This paper offers a reconsideration of the history of medical geography through an exploration of the often hidden connections and intersections that have helped to frame the future trajectory of the sub-discipline. More specifically, we focus on the important contribution made by Dr Jacques Meyer May and offer a complex and multi-layered account that examines the close interweaving of his work as a colonial surgeon and specialist in tropical medicine and his role as a medical geographer in the United States.     

The Medical Periodicals of J.C. Tode and the Idea of Public Health

In 1770 ‘Den medicinske Tilskuer’ (The Medical Spectator) was published in Copenhagen. The man behind it was the surgeon, physician and poet Johann Clemens Tode. This was the first of 16 journals in total on health and medicine that Tode was to write, edit and publish until his death in 1806. With his journals, Tode contributed significantly to making health a public issue. This implies conceptualizing health and medicine as reaching beyond the private sphere and individual lives, to rather concerning society at large. To understand the late 18th century, it is equally important to see that the idea of ‘public health’ also implies the existence of a public sphere. The article argues that Tode’s journals contributed to the making of such a public and that he did so by addressing its health. It investigates how the readers and – more generally – the public were staged and produced in Tode’s medical periodicals. The object of investigation is not primarily the medical advice given by Tode as much as the way it is given, the figures or personae that it is given to and the public that it helped to create.     

Estancias of Buenos Aires Province,Argentina: Rural Heritage,Sustainable Development and Tourism

Rural settlements growing crops and rearing animals are known as estancias in several South American countries. They played a prevailing role in the political and economic history of Argentina, particularly during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. At present, many estancias are developing alternative activities, as recreation and tourism, in order to be able to subsist. The main problem lies in the fact that a non‐sustainable activity, frequently focused on the greatest economic yield, leads to the destruction of the heritage, instead of achieving its long‐term conservation. The purpose of this paper is to develop and verify a suitable model for the planning, execution and management of recreational and tourist activities in these rural settlements. As regards the scope of the concept of sustainable development, this methodology aims at achieving a balance between the recreational and tourist operation and the conservation of the rich heritage concerned.     

变动中的西方史学

在西方学术发展史上,19世纪被称为“历史学的世纪”。进入20世纪,西方史学在“新史学”的旗帜下,取得了新的成就。科学地认识20世纪的西方史学,借鉴其有益的内容,对当代中国史学的建设具有积极作用。第二次世界大战后西方史学发展的特点和趋势之一是随着史学家历史视野的开拓,研究领域迅速扩大,传统史学同其他哲学社会科学各学科的界限变得越来越模糊,在广泛采用新的史学方法的基础上,出现了一系列历史学新的史学方法和分支学科;第二次世界大战后西方史学发展的特点和趋势之二是关注社会生活中的现实问题,强调现实决定了历史研究要研究什么和怎样研究。中国世界史研究的真正动力,在于独立地对世界历史进行认识和思考。     

The discovery of anti-epileptic drugs

The general history of epilepsy is well documented, there being detailed accounts from ancient times in Babylonia (Wilson et al., 1990), ancient India (Bharucha & Bharucha, 1989), and China (Lai & Lai, 1991), up until the end of the 19th century (Tempkin, 1971). But relatively little has been written about its medical treatment, (Melville, 1982). The subject of this article is the history of potassium bromide, phenobarbitone and phenytoin, how their use in epilepsy was discovered, and in particular the surprisingly large part played by chance, luck and serendipity, in their introduction to the pharmacopaeia. The advance in this field has been one of sudden leaps forward, followed by periods of apparent inactivity, until the next discovery emerged, a pattern repeated many times, since medical treatment of epilepsy began with potassium bromide in 1857, until the introduction of vigabatrin in 1990.