南朝都督诸州军事与其所领将军职的关系探讨

南朝都督诸州军事与所领将军职有密切的关系。将军职是都督诸州军事设置的前提条件。但是 ,都督诸州军事所领将军职不是与都督诸州军事合而为一的 ,保持明显的独立性。南朝国家为保证都督诸州军事获得将军职 ,采取多种途径授予都督诸州军事将军职 ,使都督诸州军事领任将军职表现出多样性。都督诸州军事所领将军职对都督诸州军事的任职具有明显的影响 ,表现为 :可以提高都督诸州军事的地位 ;可以影响都督诸州军事所处的等级地位 ;可以体现对都督诸州军事政绩的表彰。都督诸州军事与所领将军职的这种影响关系 ,是都督诸州军事的设置表现出独自的特点。     

东晋征讨都督探讨

征讨都督是在西晋末年出现的。在东晋时期,征讨都督为当时国家广泛使用,并且,在征讨都督的设置上,表现出明显的特点。东晋国家严格控制征讨都督的设置权力。征讨都督实际上是国家中央和地方官员的兼领职。征讨都督具有比较明确的等级区分,具有持节的权力和比较明确的称号。征讨都督可以统率中军、外军以及州郡兵,可以行使军事惩罚权,可以有效地指挥参与征讨作战的将军。征讨都督与当时国家的各种名号的将军以及都督诸州军事有密切的关系。由于都督诸州军事兼领征讨都督职,因而,就使它具有在都督区外作战、统率都督区外的军队的权力,并且,在特定的条件下,可以扩大都督区的范围。对征讨都督在战争中起到的这种作用,是不应该忽视的。     

论曹魏都督辖区的形成及定型

汉末动乱,朝廷重设四征、镇等将军以统辖一方军事,并重置都督以督管诸军。曹氏执政,为统一事权,督军渐向都督诸州军事发展,并与四征、镇将军之辖区形成二级军区制。及曹魏中后期,司马氏执政,鉴于四征、镇将军事权过大,且与都督事权不一,乃分割诸征、镇将军辖区,令四征、镇并置,并另置四安、平将军及诸杂号将军分辖各区。这使得四征、镇等将军辖区渐渐向都督区靠拢。将军号的滥置使得其位阶性日强,事权性日弱。在晋代魏禅时,都督最终正式取代了四征、镇等将军,成为地方最高军事长官,而都督区制度也就此趋于定型。     

东晋士族与兵权——侧重于侨四姓士族掌兵权之研究

士族是东晋政治舞台上重要的统治阶层 ,兵权是国家权力构成中的重要组成部分 ,东晋的国家武装可分为中央禁军、都督区两类。本文对士族 (以侨四姓为主 )担任军职和统兵量两个方面进行考察 ,归纳出 :一、士族掌兵权呈主体差异性、家族世袭性 ;二、由于兵力分布上的地域差异 ,东晋一度 (前、中期 )呈内轻外重之兵势格局。     

西晋大都督考略

国家设置大都督,最早是在魏明帝太和四年。西晋禅代魏后,仍然设置大都督。但这时设置的大都督,一般说来,出于两种目的：一是西晋国家以征讨为目的而设置大都督;二是西晋国家为尊崇重臣而设置大都督。大都督的设置,在这时已失去独立性。它经常与“八公”、将军和都督诸州军事等重要职官一同授予重臣。尽管如此,大都督仍然起到统帅征讨军和加重重臣地位的作用。只是到西晋末年,由于皇权的衰徽,才使国家设置的大都督的这些作用明显削弱了。     

西晋永嘉、建兴年间都督诸州军事制度探讨

西晋永嘉、建兴年间,继续在全国重要地区设置镇戍区,由都督负责镇戍区的防卫。但是,由于西晋末的政治、军事形势十分复杂．因此这一时期都督区和都督的设置,出现了不同于建国初年的较大变化。为了挽救日益深重的政治危机．西晋政府除进一步扩大都督的军事权力外,还相应增加了都督的行政权力。但是。随着各地方都督势力的衰落及其离心力的加强,西晋末年的都督诸州军事制度不仅没有巩固王朝的统治,反而加速了它的衰落与灭亡。     

孙吴军镇都督论略

孙吴军镇都督论略张鹤泉孙吴统治时期，在国家军队中比较普遍地实行了都督统帅军队的制度。孙吴政权设置都督种类很多，有统管全国军队的都督中外诸军事，掌管征伐的征讨都督以及负责军镇防务的军镇都督。其中军镇都督与孙吴国家安定有非常密切的关系，在当时的军事体制中...     

都督诸州军事职能在魏晋南北朝的演变——以非军事职能为侧重点

都督诸州军事的产生是为了适应当时的战争环境,主要是围绕军事斗争建立并为其服务的。但随着这一制度的进一步发展,衍生出许多非军事职能。这一制度对中国古代的行政区划产生了重要影响。而魏晋南北朝各个时期的时代特征不同,都督制也呈现出不同的特点。     

北魏后期的“道”考略

北魏后期,国家开始设置“道”。这种“道”,实际上是为大使、征讨都督和行台规定的活动范围。因此,北魏后期“道”的设置是与大使、征讨都督和行台的任职联系在一起的。由这种设置特点所决定,“道”成为大使、征讨都督和行台活动的特殊区域;“道”的设置具有临时性,其存续时间与大使、征讨都督与行台的任职相联系;“道”规定的区域范围是不明确的。至北魏末年,行台的设置开始具有地方官化的趋势,其明显表现是多以州刺史和都督诸州军事兼任。因而,与这些行台的任职相联系的“道”不仅设置的时间延长,并且具有比较明确的区域范围,实际上成为一种不稳定的行台区。这种不稳定的行台区,正是东魏、北齐稳定行台区产生的前提。     

南朝禁卫武官组织系统考

南朝禁卫武官制度主要是对东晋制度的继承和变革。南朝同样有以领军将军/中领军和护军将军/中护军为核心的禁卫武官制度,其下有左、右卫将军等各级禁卫武官。刘宋还陆续恢复了前代卫尉、虎贲中郎将、武卫将军、积射将军、强弩将军等禁卫之职。南齐明确规定左、右卫将军以下禁卫诸职构成“西省”,与散骑诸职构成的“东省”相对。刘宋末年还出现了直将军,负责殿禁卫,极为机要。南齐直将军有了更大的发展,梁代又置位尊于直将军的朱衣直将军。南朝复置卫尉并具有“掌宫城管钥”的禁卫职能。《隋书·礼仪志六》所载大量低级禁卫武官名称,其中亦体现了梁天监旧制。     

Loyalist Tattoos and Tattooed Generals in the Song Dynasty

According to Yue Fei’s biography, when the legendary general was slandered and interrogated for treason, he tore the shirt off his body, exposing four characters tattooed on his back: “Exhaust one’s loyalty in service of the state.” This study looks at two components of the Yue Fei story—patriotic tattoos, and tattooed generals—and examines their meaning in the broader stretch of Song dynasty history. Yue Fei was not the Song dynasty’s only tattooed general who came to a tragic end. The Northern Song’s Di Qing was a tattooed soldier whose military merit allowed him to rise to the highest levels of power in the empire. Di Qing’s story makes it clear that tattooed generals were objects of suspicion and ridicule at court due to their military tattoos, a trait that linked them to the criminals and lower class men that manned the Song armies. Though military tattoos sometimes had a loyalist ring to them, they were carried out on a mass scale, and were a characteristic of coercion rather than fervent loyalism. This study shows that underneath the nationalist historical narrative of the Song dynasty, of which Yue Fei is a famous example, there lies a different story of social conflict within the Song state. Rather than a story of Chinese fighting non-Chinese and of traitorous and cowardly officials struggling with loyal patriots, this study offers a narrative of a social conflict between high-born clear-skinned officials and low-born tattooed military men.     

岳飞之死与宋代文人政治的历史困境

岳飞之死乃是宋代政治的一大悲剧事件。一般认为是高宗、秦桧为与金媾和而杀害了岳飞,但从更深的政治文化传统来看,岳飞实为宋代士大夫官僚集团共同谋害。他的死象征了士大夫从武将手中重新夺回兵权,恢复了自宋代立国以来的文人主导政治的传统。岳飞之死亦显示了宋代文化的悲剧性质,是自北宋以来文人迫害武将传统的历史循环,显示了宋代文人集团极其狭隘的政治心胸。审视岳飞悲剧可以看出,士大夫们已经把维护本集团利益日益看得高于一切,甚至置王朝的整体利益于不顾,他们最终自陷于历史的困境而不能自拔。这也是整个所谓"宋型文化"失败的个案透视。     

“Soldiers with stiff bodies”: rumors,stereotypes and the Chinese image of the British army during the First Opium War (1839-1842)

ABSTRACT

A curious aspect of the First Opium War was the circulation among Chinese officials of two claims made about British soldiers, instigated by Commissioner Lin Zexu: their uniforms were so tight that if they were to stumble they would not be able to get up again; and, the men were “like fish,” thus able to function well at sea, but not to fight on land because they had become so used to the pitching and rolling of their ships. This article examines the extent to which these notions took on the quality of wartime rumors, and how they spread beyond generals and officials and into the general population. It considers the way in which the rumors functioned in different ways and at different levels of society, taking on different constructions of meaning in multiple social and political domains.     

Inevitability,masculinity, and the American military tradition: the committee on the conduct of the war investigates the American Civil War

This essay examines the work of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, a joint select committee of investigation formed by Congress during the American Civil War. During its tenure in the 37^th and 38^th sessions of Congress, the Committee investigated almost every aspect of Union military operations; however, its principal concern was the examination of Union military defeats. Members of the Committee on the Conduct of the War were influenced by the notion of inevitable Union victory. As self‐made men who had achieved a degree of success in the emerging market economy of nineteenth‐century America, Committee members exemplified the period's predominate concept of masculinity. Also skeptical of military science and distrustful of the United States military academy at West Point, the Committee showed a marked preference for volunteer soldiers and officers throughout the war. Believing that West Point generals who endorsed strategic maneuver were cowardly and disloyal, Committee members were frequently critical of regular army officers in their investigations. Confusing the rhetoric of ‘hard war’ with military competence, the Committee's disdain for military education caused it to endorse incompetent military leadership and advocate mediocre generals for high command.     

一幅不可多得的衰世群丑图——《粤氛纪事》有关太平天国时期清方将帅的记载

夏燮以当事人身份所著《粤氛纪事》具有极高的可信度,却一直未受到重视.该书以记载太平天国与清朝统治阶级之间的军事斗争为主要内容,比较全面地分析了封建统治阶级的腐败无能,生动具体地再现了清军将帅贪生怕死的丑态,实事求是地指出了清军在战略上的失误,毫不留情地揭露了清军将帅之间的矛盾,而这些都是在官方档案中很难见到的.因而该书的史料价值在许多方面远远超出了清方档案之上.     

从《罗让碑》看唐末魏博的政治与社会

《罗让碑》是反映唐末魏博政治与社会状况的重要文献。唐末魏博的多次变乱,反映出魏博内部军将阶层与牙军之间的矛盾,牙军自利与保守的性格,使魏博在唐末乱世中失去了扩张的动力。神道碑是唐王朝确立君臣秩序的重要手段之一,而碑志作为一种显著的政治景观,对于当时的社会心理及文化传播具有较大的影响,中晚唐河北的巨型碑志成为藩镇彰显权力合法性及形塑地方认同的工具。《罗让碑》建立的前后因果便是一个典型案例,罗弘信出身低微,有意在碑文中宣扬唐廷的恩遇,并造作符谶,巩固自身的统治基础。《罗让碑》形制上僭越与文字上恭谨形成的对比,忠义意识传播与藩镇半独立地位之间的张力,都反映出中晚唐河北政治文化的复杂内涵。     

论汉文帝

有着“仁”、改革家形象的汉帝,由于其即位的特殊的社会历史背景,使他在即位后进行一系列政治、经济改革的同时,出现了尊宠刘氏宗族和依靠重用老臣、宿将的局面。汉帝的这种报恩思想也赋予了他因循守旧和固守刘邦政治原则的形象,形成了他人格上的二重性。其结果,汉帝虽进行了一系列巩固政权的政治、经济改革,相反却促使诸侯坐大,加剧了统治阶级内部矛盾,经济改革措施则激化了阶级矛盾。     

Intimate Extractions: Demand Dowry and Neoliberal Development in Dhaka,Bangladesh

Based on qualitative research on marital problems in Dhaka, this article uses the term ‘intimate extractions’ as a lens to explain the relationship between escalating levels of demand dowry and neoliberal development in Bangladesh. Evidence from across Bangladesh shows that demands for cash made by husbands, accompanied by threats of violence or divorce, are on the rise. Building on gendered theories of contemporary capitalist development and feminist analysis of microcredit, the article argues that demand dowry should be understood within the current context of rapid economic development in Bangladesh. High levels of precarity, lack of state welfare and the need for cash for businesses, labour migration, education and healthcare mean that people from all social classes are in perpetual need of money. Marriage problems and the practice of demand dowry present opportunities for husbands to extract money from wives and their families. Embedded in the intimate relationship of marriage, demand dowry can therefore be understood as a ‘conversion’, a process in which intimate relationships are converted into projects of capital accumulation, thus becoming an ‘intimate extraction’.     

试论刘宋东宫武官制度

刘宋的东宫武官在南北朝军事逞胜的外环境和刘宋皇权不断加强的总趋势下得到了较大发展。刘宋四帝对于东宫武官制度采取了不同的态度和政策。宋武帝恢复晋末罢废的太子二率,增设太子三校、三将等职官;文帝时二率、三校成为东宫主要武官职;孝武帝大力罢省东宫武官,削抑东宫势力;明帝则再度恢复东宫三校,并新增东宫直阁等武职。总而言之,宋之东宫武职呈现出明显的强弱跌宕、阶段性变化,这既是刘宋诸任皇帝权力强弱异势的现实表现,也是刘宋皇权重振之路的曲折反映。     

辛亥革命時期清廷的戰時財政運籌

戰時財政是一種非常態財政,辛亥鼎革期間,爲配合戰爭機器運轉,清廷被迫放棄預算財政軌道,轉入停辦其他新政,籌措所有潛在財源,力顧國防的戰時財政狀態。在部庫與省庫均近乎告罄的情況下,部省極力籌畫舉借外債,但先後格於列强的中立政策,不具成效;統兵將帥與北省督撫極力獻策發掘内款的各種方案,卻依然難遂人願。因部庫窘困,清廷針對戰時請款不得不流於敷衍,空言指撥,而無實際,戰時財政運籌由此陷入絶境。它折射出財政改制面臨巨大變故後,國省財政應對乏術,内外疏離趨於顯性的極端態勢。