苏联城市化的历史和现状及其特点

本文分析了苏联城市化的历史发展过程和现状,认为苏联城市化可分为六个阶段:缓慢发展时期、停滞时期、大发展时期、停滞及恢复发展时期、高速持续发展时期、中速发展时期、认为苏联城市化的水平已达到了高度城市化阶段,但存在地区差异。阐述了苏联城市化的特点。     

试论俄国军事封建帝国主义的实质

究竟如何认识俄国军事封建帝国主义的实质,国内外学术界均有不同意见。在苏联,一种意见认为,俄国军事封建帝国主义是“最新资本帝国主义链条中的一个环节”,是具有帝国主义特征的“资本主义特殊阶段”,另一种意见则认为,军事封建帝国主义就是“帝国主义时期的沙皇制度”。本文作者不同意上述两种观点,该文从理论和历史两小方面进行分析,认为俄国军事封建帝国主义是指沙皇制度的掠夺政策和压迫政策,而不是指进入垄断阶段的俄国资本主义;这种军事封建帝国主义存在于沙皇制度自形成至灭亡的整小历史时期,并不仅仅存在帝国主义时期。作者还指出,把军事封建帝国主义引申为俄国帝国主义的特点同样是不正确的。     

全球化视野下的俄罗斯史学

<正>一般来说,俄罗斯史学发展大致划分为三个时段:1917年前为俄国时期,1917—1991年为苏联时期,1991年后称为俄罗斯联邦时期。苏联史学确立了马克思主义的主导地位,即"俄国十月革命的胜利开辟了世界史学发展中的崭新时期,以马克思主义历史科学的发展和巩固为主要特征,马克思主义史学成为苏联史学中唯一的正统流派"。1苏联马克思主义史学具有以阶级分析方法为主,关注政治史的研究,强调布尔什维克社会主义革命和苏联社会主义建设的历史功绩,否定俄国时期和西方的史学成就等特征。     

苏联城市化的基本特点

苏联作为一个发达的社会主义国家和发达的工业国家,其城市化进程既具有发达资本主义和社会主义双重特性,同时又具有独特性。主要表现在如下三个方面,即:阶段性明显、与工业化关系密切、发展不平衡。一、城市化发展阶段性明显苏联城市化的历史最早可追溯到中世纪时代,但大规模城市化始于19世纪30年代的俄国工业革命,城市化的迅速发展则发生在十月社会主义革命以后。     

俄罗斯学界对俄国现代化问题的研究

正在苏联时期对俄国历史的解释中,社会发展阶段理论曾长期居于垄断地位。到20世纪八九十年代之交,苏联(俄国)学术界开始使用现代化理论和方法研究俄国历史。1993年第7期的《哲学问题》发表了以《俄国现代化:问题与前景》为题的圆桌会议材料,④这既是俄罗斯学界对俄国现代化研究的阶段性总结,也推动了这方面研究的进一步发展。由于当代俄国仍以全面现代化作为自己的发展目标,从俄国现代化的曲折历史中寻求教益成为现实的任务,由此对有关俄国现代化的理论和历史问题的讨论不断深化。本文⑤即是对其中主要问题的梳理和评论。一、世界现代化进程中的俄国阿列克谢耶夫院士指出,描述世界现代化的基本线索是研究俄国现代化的基础。俄国学术界一     

俄罗斯学者关于尼夫赫人的研究历程

尼夫赫人属于生活在黑龙江下游和萨哈林地区的古亚细亚族。随着俄国对东北亚地区土地的占领和统治的确立,俄国学者对尼夫赫人的民族调查与研究亦随之展开,本文概述了尼夫赫人的历史并介绍了沙俄、苏联和俄罗斯时期俄国学者关于尼夫赫人研究的成果。     

中吉边界问题的解决及其影响

正中国与吉尔吉斯共和国的边界问题实际上是苏联时期遗留下来的,源于1864年中国清政府与沙皇俄国签订的不平等条约《中俄勘分西北界约记》。中国自沙皇俄国始与其成为邻邦,直至苏联解体的300多年间因边界问题与其有过多次冲突,双方也就此进行多次谈判并签订划界条约。但苏联时期双方曾举行过三次试图解决历史遗留边界问题的谈判都无果而终,自1992年1月5日,中吉两国正式建交起,边界问题成为中吉两国发展双边友好关系需要解决     

抗战初期民国政府的法国军事顾问团

北伐战争时期的苏联军事顾问、土地革命战争时期的德国军事顾问,以及抗战时期和解放战争时期的美国军事顾问团,为大家所熟知。鲜为人知的是抗战初期法国军事顾问团来华的缘由和经过。     

美国俄国史研究的历史回顾

美国的俄国史研究曾吸纳并融合了来自西方史学传统和俄国史学传统两方面的理论与方法,形成了具有美国风格的学科特色,并为该领域在二战之后继续发展为一门更为成熟的学科奠定了基础。冷战期间,随着国际政治局势的变化和学术本身的发展,美国历史学家先后采纳了极权主义、现代化理论作为研究俄国史的主流范式,通过对帝俄和苏联时期一些重要课题进行研究,取得了值得引起学界重视的成果。     

1917年的选择:列宁的对手是如何丧失人民支持的

爆发于1917年的俄国十月革命,是20世纪最伟大的事件之一。俄国工人阶级在自己的先锋队布尔什维克的领导下,顺应时代潮流,夺取并掌握了国家政权,使俄国(苏联)逐渐摆脱落后,走上了社会主义的强国之路。苏联的解体,不能遮掩十月革命的伟大功绩。90年过去了,十月革命开辟的历史道路,仍显示出深刻的必然性;对十月革命时代背景、历史进程、社会影响、经验教训等一系列重大问题的深入考察和科学研究,仍是准确认识20世纪乃至今后一个时期人类历史发展方向的重要前提。在纪念十月革命90周年之际,本刊发表一组俄罗斯学者的笔谈,供学术界参考。     

Between hospitality and hostility: Russian citizens in Georgia

Since the Russian attack on Ukraine, as many as 100,000 citizens of the Russian Federation may have migrated to Georgia to avoid military service or to escape the impact of Western sanctions on their employment prospects. While Russian political activists abroad have received some attention, the reception in Georgia of other Russian émigré groups remains understudied. This article distinguishes four groups of Russian newcomers to Georgia based on their class and regional affiliations. It analyses their relationships and how Georgian government officials and citizens receive each group. Regardless of such categorizations, the massive, temporary and uncertain presence of Russian citizens affiliated with a large country currently attacking a smaller country whose sovereignty it does not recognize erodes the foundations of hospitality, which is held in high esteem in Georgia.     

„Fremde Körperwelten”︁. Russische Anthropologie und Medizin im kolonialen Diskurs des ausgehenden Zarenreiches

?Exotic Bodies”?: Russian Anthropology and Medicine in the Colonial Discours of Late Imperial Russia. In the nineteenth century Russian anthropologists adopted Western theories on the biological superiority of the white man in order to justify Russian colonization at the Asiatic periphery. After the Great Reforms the imperial process of acculturation was discussed in the context of modernization that also touched the institutionalization of colonial medicine. Whereas Russian armchair anthropologists were operating with racial idioms, physicians as practitioners on the colonial spot were not receptive to the ideology of “white man's burden”. From experience with the socioeconomic backwardness of Russia's Asiatic periphery physicians stood up for the vital rights of the indigenous population in the colonial Public Health. With deep respect for indigenous medicine Russian physicians were not advocates of Russian colonial expansion and racial discrimination that made them different to their Western colleagues. On the basis of Russian nineteenth century medical literature and Siberian archival sources this paper outlines the critical reflections of Russian physicians on Tsarist colonialism     

“But what would they think of us?” Propaganda and the Manipulation of the Anglo-Soviet Occupation of Iran, 1941‒46

The 1941 Anglo-Soviet occupation of Iran is a topic that continues to interest historians. Work on this period has mainly focused on the reasons behind the occupation and its impact on the political situation in the country. This article looks at the psyche of the occupying forces by studying their propaganda tactics during this period. It was through propaganda that both were able to manipulate local players to either further their own interests or damage the reputation of the other. Such tactics were reflective of the dynamic nature of British?Soviet relations and had a direct consequence on the politics of Iran. A key aspect of this was the British machine’s promotion of the Tudeh Party’s legacy as a tool of the Soviets. The propaganda patterns reveal the reactive nature of the occupying force’s policy in Iran, and reflected their changing interests.     

Chinese Objects in Eurasian Empire: On the Cultural Meaning of Chinese Art in Russia in the Late 17th–Early 18th Centuries

This article examines special features of “Chinoiserie” or “Chinese fashion” (“Kitaischina”) in Russia from the late 17th to the early 18th century: The reign of Peter the First. It discusses this cultural phenomenon’s historical origins, demonstrates the role of Chinese luxury goods and art objects in the era’s Russo-Chinese cultural exchange, and illustrates how Chinese decorative arts were used in Russian palaces. While Chinoiserie in Russia was influenced by similar trends in Western Europe, it was rooted in the unique history of regular contacts between Russia and the Qing Empire. Chinese objects not only appeared as commodities in the higher levels of Russian society, they also contributed to the prestige of the Russian state. Peter the First had a political purpose behind the collection, display and imitation of Chinese art objects in Russian palaces, as these practices demonstrated the growing wealth and power of newly established Russian Empire, which enjoyed trade connections with the Qing Empire. While contemporary perceptions of China in Russia were derived mostly by the exotic images of export art, ethnographic collections of genuine Chinese utensils, which were founded during that period, also contributed to Russian views of China. This research uses a comprehensive methodology, combining studies of material objects preserved in Russian museums and written sources, including archival records.     

Russia’s energy relations with China: passing the strategic threshold?

This article examines Russian energy policies toward China over the past decade as reluctant engagement changed into a priority energy partnership. From 2008 to 2016 Russian and Chinese companies signed several major oil and gas agreements, a period in which Moscow reassessed China as a future energy consumer and lifted bilateral cooperation to a new level. The article utilizes the strategic partnership concept as an analytical framework and finds traditional realist concepts and hedging inadequate for this particular case. The study illuminates Russian geopolitical considerations and acceptance of vulnerability, which combined make long-term Russian energy policies more China dependent. Officially, Russia seeks diversification among Asian energy buyers, but its focus has increasingly been on China. Western sanctions imposed in 2014 for Russia’s role in Ukraine accelerated this trend. Moscow’s energy policies toward Beijing with its pipelines and long-term agreements are permanent arrangements that resemble strategic partnership policies. China is eager to increase energy relations with Russian companies, but Beijing also ensures that it does not become too dependent on one supplier. Russian concern over its increased dependence on China in the East is deemed secondary to expanding Russia’s customer base beyond the still-dominant European market.     

论中国城墙的起源

中国的城墙起源于原始社会后期,即龙山文化时代。它是由壕沟演变而来的防御工程,并逐渐代替壕沟而成为城市防御的主要手段。
经过夏、商两代的发展,西周时代已普遍筑城,城和国已成为同义词。而且筑城技术也发展到一个新的高度,与今天的筑城方法十分相似。
城和市都兴起很早,二者之间也没有关系。由于西周时代城内设市,就出现了中国早期的城市。"城市"一词起源于战国,即设市之城邑谓之城市。     

Hebrew Literature and Jewish Nationalism in the Tsarist Empire 1881–1917

Abstract. After 1881, Hebrew literature in the tsarist empire became an integral part of the rise of Jewish nationalism, and it created literary norms which were transplanted to mandatory Palestine. This literature, in contrast to most pre-1881 Hebrew literature, is aesthetically on a very high level. Led by Mendele Mocher Sefarim in prose fiction and by Chaim Nachman Bialik in poetry, it asserted Jewish national feeling even when not overtly nationalistic. In doing so, it subverted tsarist authority and indirectly declared the Jews to be independent of the empire. Yet, in many of its main concerns this literature shows the influence of Russian literature, especially of the Reform Era, but also afterwards (Chekhov, in particular), and itmight even be regarded as an ethnic branch of Russian literature. Both literatures depicted the failings of their society with the aim of achieving social change. However, while Russian literature pointed to revolution, Hebrew literature after 1881 pointed to Palestine where most of the Hebrew writers of that period eventually emigrated.     

An Enlightened path towards conservatism: critical junctures and changing elite perceptions in early nineteenth-century Russia

This article explores the historical roots of Russian conservatism by analyzing the evolution of Russia’s Westernized, Enlightenment-minded nobility to a conservative segment of Russian society in the early nineteenth century. The events of 1789 and 1812 were critical junctures that made the Russian nobility painfully aware of their own deep level of Westernization. The article first describes the reverberations of the French Revolution among the Russian elite. It also discusses the internal and external scrutiny of Russia’s relations with France under Napoleon, which made Russian conservatism a contingency. It then describes the evolution between 1789 and 1812 of a corpus of conservative ideas ranging from traditionalism to ardent patriotism and xenophobia. Napoleon’s 1812 campaign against Russia overshadowed the generational gap and diverging political and literary preferences among the elite. The reaction to it illustrates the intrinsic duality of the Russian elite: culturally Westernized, yet politically conservative. Yet the influence of several Western defenders of the ancien régime on Russia’s conservatives shows that the essentially conservative Russian identity as propagated by Putin these days originally might have been more pan-European than purely Russian.     

Intelligence and Stalin's Two Crucial Decisions in the Winter War, 1939–40

In 1939–40, the fierce Winter War was waged between the Soviet Union and Finland. This article analyses Stalin's two main decisions, to attack and to make peace, and the intelligence behind those decisions. Already at the outbreak, it was obvious that the attack was based on a serious misjudgement. The Soviets did not foresee that the action would become a real war, very different from the occupation of eastern Poland in September. It will be shown that this was due more to Stalin's miscalculation of consequences than to any major failure of intelligence collection. As to why Stalin made peace at the very moment when the Red Army finally began winning, and with the Finnish government he had declared non-existent, this seems to be connected with defective assessment of intelligence from London and Paris. Even the Cambridge Five were discarded. Both real and perceived threats of Allied intervention weighed heavily in Stalin's decisions, in particular the southern threat against Baku and the Caucasus. The analysis will contribute to scholarly discussion on Stalin's foreign policy and the role of intelligence in Soviet decision-making. New evidence is mainly provided by intelligence and security documents released by the Central Archives of the Russian Federal Security Service.     

Soviet Cultural Legacy in Tajikistan

This paper is a report on the Soviet cultural legacy in Tajikistan. It takes an in-depth look at the institutions that were created to manage artistic and cultural activities, budgeting, training and promotion under the Soviets. The paper suggests that, except for art and culture related to religion, other genres were enhanced, albeit with an emphasis on ideology. However, independence in 1992, along with the civil war that erupted immediately afterwards, had a devastating effect on art and culture in Tajikistan and on the lives of the artistic community. The paper is part of a comprehensive study of post-Soviet art and culture in Central Asia in the critical years immediately after the Soviet collapse. For this study, over one hundred interviews were conducted with officials, musicians, dancers, writers and singers, as well as visits to centers of art and culture in those republics.