CHARACTERIZING THE SEDIMENTARY HISTORY OF CAVE DEPOSITS,USING ARCHAEOMAGNETISM AND ROCK MAGNETISM,ATAPUERCA (NORTHERN SPAIN)

We use a combination of rock magnetism (anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility, AMS) and magnetic polarity to characterize cave deposits and as a proxy for sedimentary fabric. In three localities at the Atapuerca archaeological site (Galeria, Gran Dolina and Sala de los Cíclopes), magnetic foliation (K_max/K_int) is always greater than lineation (K_int/K_min), consistent with a primary, depositional, sedimentary fabric. Our results, although preliminary, reveal a higher degree of anisotropy in autochtonous deposits compared to allochthonous deposits, possibly indicative of a higher hydrodynamic regime in the former. At two localities the magnetic lineation (K_max) defines a cluster, which is thought to be antipodal to the palaeocurrent direction. Hence we are able to retrieve palaeoflow directions in deposits that otherwise lack any other sedimentary structure. We conclude that AMS is a powerful tool for determining the hydrodynamic character of depositional environments in cave sediments at the Atapuerca archaeological site. A better understanding of the depositional environment and how sedimentation occurred allows reconstruction of the karst evolution and ultimately a better definition of human interaction with the environment.     

CLAY RESOURCES AND TECHNICAL CHOICES FOR NEOLITHIC POTTERY (CHALAIN,JURA, FRANCE): CHEMICAL,MINERALOGICAL AND GRAIN‐SIZE ANALYSES*

Many authors have considered pottery manufacturing constraints and sociocultural elements as factors in change in past civilizations over time. The main issue of this research is to better understand the reasons for changes, or choices, in pottery raw materials. The very precise and detailed stratigraphy and cultural succession of occupations is based on dendrochronological data from the lake‐dwelling sites of Chalain (Jura, France). Petrographic, palaeontological and chemical analyses were used to determine the nature and origins of the raw materials used by the Neolithic potters. Stratigraphy and dendrochronological data were used to reconstruct in detail the evolution dynamics of fabric changes. Several raw material sources were identified for many of the pottery groups. Each of them was sampled for qualitative experimental tests of pottery forming. The experimental results show a high variability between the sediments tested. This variability was quantitatively estimated by XRF, XRD, the Rietveld method, calcium carbonate quantification and laser grain‐size analyses of matrices, indirect measures of plasticity. These analytical results allow a better understanding of the differences observed in the experimental tests. On the basis of these experimental and analytical results, changing parameters such as pottery manufacturing constraints, mineralogical characteristics of raw materials and sociocultural factors are considered. In conclusion, all the social and technical parameters, in each archaeological context, must be taken into account for a better understanding of the changes occurring throughout the chronological sequence.     

STRONG GROUND MOTIONS AND DAMAGE PATTERNS FROM THE 1999 DUZCE EARTHQUAKE IN TURKEY

The M _w , 7.1 Duzce earthquake occurred on 12 November 1999 along the North Anatolian Fault in northwestern Turkey. This paper documents observations from a field reconnaissance team, addressing two principal aspects of this significant earthquake: the recorded ground motions and the distribution and severity of the earthquake effects on the built environment. In general, the recorded ground motions from this earthquake were smaller than predicted by ground motion predictive equations available at the time of the event. One anomalous recording is presented and potential causes for this irregular motion based on observations from field reconnaissance are discussed. The effects of rupture directivity on the near-fault recordings are assessed and the effects of soil conditions on the recorded ground motions are examined. The patterns of building damage based on post-earthquake reconnaissance are presented for the most strongly shaken cities in the near-fault region: Duzce, Kaynasli, and Bolu. Damage in Duzce was concentrated in the southern part of the city, which is underlain by softer sediments. Damage in Bolu was distributed evenly throughout the city; whereas damage was concentrated on more recent alluvial sediments in Kaynasli. No evidence of liquefaction or ground failure was observed in the populated areas surveyed after the earthquake.     

Geo-Ethnoarchaeology of Pastoral Sites: The Identification of Livestock Enclosures in Abandoned Maasai Settlements

The earliest food producers in Africa were mobile pastoralists who left limited archaeological traces. As a result archaeologists studying the spread of food production in the region have difficulty distinguishing early pastoralists from hunter-gatherers with whom they interacted. This geo-ethnoarchaeological study contributes to the resolution of the problem through identification of sediments distinctive of livestock enclosures, and thus of pastoral settlements. Sediments were sampled in and around currently occupied and recently abandoned Maasai livestock enclosures ranging in age between one and 40 years. Twenty to thirty years after site abandonment, there is no visible difference between enclosure and regional sediments. Micromorphological, mineralogical, and phytolith analyses, of enclosure sediments, however, allow differentiation of enclosure from regional sediments. Our results show that a unique undulating microlaminated structure is distinctive of enclosure sediments. Enclosure sediments, especially small stock, also contain a rare mineral, monohydrocalcite (CaCO₃ . H₂O). In addition, large amounts of opal (SiO₂ . nH₂O), in the form of phytoliths, are found in enclosure relative to regional sediments. These differences are likely to be preserved in the archaeological record, and this approach will allow better understanding of the spread of pastoralism in Africa and elsewhere.     

Modelling land use around an early Neolithic timber ‘hall’ in north east Scotland from high spatial resolution pollen analyses

A methodology is described by which spatial patterns of land use were reconstructed from pollen analyses on anthropogenic sediments at a recently excavated early Neolithic timber ‘hall’ in north east Scotland. The anthropogenic sediments were from a deep, small diameter pit within the building. They present numerous taphonomic and interpretative challenges to the analyst, but from this type of deposit, the power to estimate quantitatively the vegetation structure around the archaeological site makes such difficult deposits very significant. A rigorous methodology is firstly described, therefore, by which confidence in ecological interpretation can be established. Secondly, the source of pollen in the deposit is evaluated. Thirdly, the possible pollen source area and structure of the surrounding vegetation are estimated by quantitative simulation modelling. Finally, these analyses are compared with region-scale pollen analyses from nearby conventional wetland deposits with much larger pollen source areas. The pollen assemblages recovered probably reflect land uses adjacent to the ‘hall’ and up to 2.5 km around. Cereal cultivation was the most important land use immediately around the ‘hall’, possibly grown between stands of scrub Corylus (hazel) woodland. These intensive but local-scale land uses cannot be discerned in region-scale pollen analyses.     

Scanning electron microscope analysis of sediments from Tabun Cave,Mount Carmel,Israel

Scanning electron microscope analysis of sediments from Tabun Cave has revealed a detailed palaeoenvironmental history for the area. Basal units (Garrod's F and G layers) derive from wind-blown materials, intermediate units (E) are wind-blown derivatives but with marine modification, and the upper units (D, $\text{B}\text{C}$) exhibit only aeolian modification to grain surfaces. As had been previously postulated, the analyses also provide supporting evidence for chemical alteration phases within the sediments.     

PERESTROYKA AND THE ECONOMIC REGION IN STATE MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING

The concept of region-based planning and management bodies, which flourished for a time during Khrushchev's sovnarkhozy reforms, is resurrected, this time under the guise of promoting decentralization and enhancing territorial versus sectoral planning under perestroyka. More precisely, the authors argue for devolution of meaningful planning and management functions to a network of smaller and more numerous economic regions, with “regional economic councils” serving as bodies for planning and coordinating the activities of smaller spatial units within these regions. A scheme describing how such a network might function within the current Soviet bureaucratic structure and economic environment is presented (translated by Jay K. Mitchell, PlanEcon, Inc., Washington, DC 20005).     

PROVENANCE OF ANCIENT TEXTILES—A PILOT STUDY EVALUATING THE STRONTIUM ISOTOPE SYSTEM IN WOOL*

Strontium isotopes are used in archaeology to reconstruct human and animal migration routes. We present results of a pilot study applying strontium isotope analyses to modern sheep hair as a basis for its potential use as a provenance tracer for ancient woollen textiles. Our hydrofluoric acid‐based, lipid soluble analytical protocol, also tested on a number of ancient textile fibres, allows for contamination‐free, low blank strontium isotope analysis of minimal amounts of archaeological material. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of decontaminated sheep hair agree well with the compositions of biologically available (soluble) strontium fractions from the respective feeding ground soils, a translatable requirement for any potentially successful provenance tracing applied to wool textiles.     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED SEISMIC RESPONSE OF KIRALKIZI DAM IN TURKEY

Kiralkizi Dam, a 120 m high earthfill dam located in Diyarbakir city, Turkey, was shaken by a moment magnitude, M _w =4.6 earthquake at an epicentral distance of 8 km, on December 24, 2000, at 13:31 local time. The seismic response of the dam was assessed by using spectral ratios between (i) available crest and foundation records (C/F), (ii) horizontal and vertical components of the recorded motions (H/V), (iii) by performing 2 dimensional finite difference-based seismic response analyses (Flac-2D), and (iv) ID elastic shear beam solutions. First mode of vibration of the dam in the transverse direction by all four methods were estimated in the range of 0.55 to 0.62 second. Similar close agreement was not observed in higher modal periods estimated by H/V technique as compared to the predictions by C/F, Flac-2D, shear beam analysis techniques. Thus, H/V technique was concluded to be useful for the estimation of the fundamental resonance frequency of a soil structure, but not for its higher harmonics as consistent with available limited literature. In the longitudinal direction, natural period of the dam was estimated as 0.28 and 0. 82 second by H/V and C/F techniques, respectively. Such disagreement was explained by (i) differences in the definitions of the estimated periods, (ii) internal impedance contrast of the dam, (iii) contributions of 3D valley effects. Single seismometer record obtained from crest level was found to be inadequate for reliably assessing the response of a dam in the longitudinal direction, and it is recommended to install multiple seismometers both within dambody and the abutments. Last but not least, the results of these analyses were further compared by available accelograms recorded at three earthfill and rocknll dams from Japan. In general, it was concluded that the seismic response of Kiralkizi Dam is comparable and within the prediction ranges of available analyses methods and is consistent with the expected response of a dam this height.     

PETROGRAPHIC AND STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSES OF LATE CLASSIC ULÚA MARBLE VASES AND POTENTIAL SOURCES*

Ulúa marble vases from the Ulúa Valley of northwestern Honduras are a hallmark luxury good from Late Classic (ad 600–900) Mesoamerica. Archaeological and stylistic data point to centralized production at one site, Travesía. This paper analyses stable isotope and petrographic data from the vases and three potential procurement areas. The results indicate that the vases were produced from one primary source with one, potentially two, secondary sources. Procurement patterns most probably corresponded to contemporary communication routes. The results clearly indicate that a multi‐method approach is necessary for sourcing marble from Honduras.     

OPTICAL DATING RESULTS FOR BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL SEDIMENTS

In this paper optical dating results for a range of British archaeological sediments are presented to illustrate the potential this method offers for archaeologists. The optical dating is shown to offer an absolute method for directly dating the deposition of sediments for an age range of approximately 1–300ka. Problems have been found with recuperation of the optically stimulated luminescence signal and insufficient bleaching at deposition of the sediment. A suitable correction method for the recuperation has been found and a method of identifying insufficient bleaching is suggested.     

A COMPARISON OF INDUCTIVELY-COUPLED PLASMA EMISSION SPECTROMETRY AND ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS ON STANDARD REFERENCE SILICATE MATERIALS AND CERAMICS

Analyses by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and atomic absorption spectrometry of 22 ceramic standards and sherds are compared. Further data from analyses of one of the ceramic standards analysed by both methods are also discussed. The results show that for most major elements, the methods are comparable, but that use of common standards would be advisable if data from the two methods are to be compared.     

Identification of pastoral sites using stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes from bulk sediment samples: a case study in modern and archaeological pastoral settlements in Kenya

The identification of pastoral sites in the East African archaeological record is problematic. Recently, a method for the identification of degraded livestock enclosure sediments had been developed that takes into account the geoarchaeological indicators of micromorphology, phytolith concentrations and the mineral assemblages. This suite of indicators may not always be present in degraded livestock enclosure sediments. This study presents an additional indicator by which degraded livestock enclosure sediments may be identified, namely the isotopic composition of organic nitrogen measured on bulk sediment samples. We studied a highly controlled ethnoarchaeological sequence of abandoned Maasai livestock enclosure sediments sampled in Rombo area, southern Kenya. The results were compared to archaeological sediments from the Elmenteitan Pastoral Neolithic site of Sugenya, southwestern Kenya, radiocarbon dated to ca. 2000 BP (uncalibrated). The sediments from both sites were studied using all four types of analyses, i.e., micromorphology, mineralogy, phytolith concentrations, and stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions on bulk sediment samples. The results show that in abandoned livestock enclosure sediments of known ages a significant enrichment in the heavy nitrogen isotope (¹⁵N) occurs, and that carbon isotopic compositions may be useful for differentiating cattle from caprine enclosures following their dietary preferences (i.e., grazers vs. browsers). A similar pattern of ¹⁵N enrichment is observed in sediments sampled within the site of Sugenya while sediments sampled outside the site's perimeter are generally depleted in ¹⁵N. The micromorphological, mineralogical and phytolith analyses support the conclusion that the sediments from within the site of Sugenya represent degraded livestock enclosure sediments. The carbon isotopic composition from the degraded dung deposits strongly suggests that livestock kept at Sugenya were cattle. Overall, this study presents new empirical data that can be used for the identification of livestock enclosures, and shows that the isotopic signatures and geoarchaeological indicators can preserve for at least two millennia.     

Archaeological geophysics of a Bronze Age agricultural landscape: the AROURA Project,central mainland Greece

Between 2010 and 2012, the AROURA project conducted magnetometric prospection in the ancient polder around the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1300–1190 b.c.) fortress of Glas, mainland Greece. As had been hypothesized, the anomalies detected were consistent with a system of agricultural fields. This system appears to have been irrigated and drained through previously identified hydraulic mechanisms in and around the polder. Comparison of soil profiles of anomalies with those of background areas, including their magnetic susceptibilities, corroborated magnetometric data. Anomalies were traced from sampled to unsampled areas through corresponding reclassified satellite bandwidths. Constituent sediments of features discovered were dated to the Late Bronze Age through AMS radiocarbon and OSL analyses. The results validated the use of extensive geophysics to detect and investigate ancient agricultural landscapes.     

Caesium-137 as an indicator of geomorphic processes in a drainage basin system

Caesium-137 from fallout from nuclear weapons tests is adsorbed on fine sediments and becomes an effective tracer. It is hypothesised that within a drainage basin, sites undergoing little or no erosion accumulate ¹³⁷ Cs in their upper layers; cultivated soils will have ¹³⁷ Cs uniformly distributed within the cultivated layer; eroded soils, cultivated or not, will have relatively less ^l37 Cs, depending on the severity of erosion. Accumulated sediments will have characteristic ¹³⁷ Cs profiles reflecting temporal fallout variations and sedimentation history. This hypothetical model is largely confirmed by results from Maluna Creek basin, where erosion and accumulation of sediments has taken place. Soils under viticulture have about one third the ¹³⁷ Cs content of soils with grass cover, indicating more severe erosion under cultivation. Caesium-137 profiles in alluvial fan and flood plain deposits correlate with sediment layers and known cultivation history.     

Mold-deteriorated archaeological Egyptian papyri: Biodeteriogens,monitoring the deterioration,and treatment approach

Fungi play a critical role in the deterioration of ancient papyri due to their organic and hygroscopic nature. Fourteen fungal species belonging to five genera—Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Talaromyces, and Ulocladium—were isolated and identified from 20 Egyptian papyrus artifacts located at the Grand Egyptian Museum—Conservation Center (GEM-CC). The biodeterioration mechanism was evaluated by two analyses: cellulase enzyme activity and acid production assay. The isolated fungus P. lanosum showed potent biodeterioration power as it exhibited the highest enzymatic activity and could produce acid as well. Four different analyses were performed to assess the entity of the biodeterioration phenomenon: scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, colorimetry, and pH measurements. The analyses demonstrated considerable changes in surface morphology, chemical structure (mainly represented by oxidation and hydrolysis of infected papyrus samples), darkness of the papyrus samples (ΔE 3.84–7.33), and pH (which dropped to 5.2 in the case of A. niger-infected sample. This article builds a preliminary perception for monitoring the biodeterioration of archaeological papyri and a trial for in vitro treatment to prevent further degradation, which may lead to loss of our valuable artifacts over a prolonged period.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTERS AND MORTARS AS A TOOL IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES: THE CASE OF LARDIRAGO CASTLE IN PAVIA,NORTHERN ITALY*

Plasters and mortars from Lardirago Castle (Pavia, northern Italy) have been characterized by means of petrographical and chemical analyses in order to achieve technical and historical evidence of material production. The study focused on the oldest nucleus of the structure, where hidden plastered masonry has been discovered recently. Textural and compositional data of the binder and the aggregate fractions were collected by means of optical microscopy and electron microscopy coupled with microanalysis. These data permit the identification of building materials with similar technical and compositional characteristics, which can be related to different building phases.     

Australian Cenozoic Bryozoa, 2: Free-living Cheilostomata of the Eocene St. Vincent Basin,S.A., including Bonellina gen. nov

Schmidt, R., March 2007. Australian Cenozoic Bryozoa, 2: Free-living Cheilostomata of the Eocene St. Vincent Basin, S.A., including Bonellina gen. nov. Alcheringa 31, 67-84. ISSN 0311-5518.

Free-living bryozoans are diverse in the Eocene sediments of the St. Vincent Basin, South Australia. They include Bonellina pentagonalis gen. et sp. nov., Otionellina sp. cf. O. exigua (Tenison Woods), Otionellina sp. cf. O. cupola (Tenison Woods), Tubiporella magna (Tenison Woods), Celleporaria nummularia (Tenison Woods), and an indeterminate species only found as moulds. This diversity and abundance is highest in the sediments representing the initial transgressive marine facies, where they occur in ‘sand fauna’ bryozoan assemblages (e.g. with Melicerita and Siphonicytara). Free-living bryozoans decrease up-section and are absent from latest Eocene sediments, indicating a significant environmental shift.

Rolf Schmidt [rschmid@museum.vic.gov.au], Museum Victoria, Melbourne, Vic 3001, Australia; received 18.3.2005, revised 14.12.2005.     

AN EVALUATION OF ANALYTICAL AND INTERPRETATIVE METHODOLOGIES FOR THE EXTRACTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LIPIDS ASSOCIATED WITH POTTERY SHERDS FROM THE SITE OF SAGALASSOS,TURKEY*

Three lipid analysis methods were applied to extracts of archaeological potsherds from the ancient city of Sagalassos, south‐west Turkey. In the fatty acid methyl ester fraction, obtained by selective transesterification of acylglycerols, the ratio of methyl palmitate to methyl stearate was determined. Secondly, by means of gas chromatography– combustion–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC–C–IRMS), stable carbon isotope ratios were measured for the same methyl esters. Finally, triglyceride composition was determined via high‐performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS). All three methods can be used to trace the origin of animal fat. Agreement between them is reasonable, especially in recognizing ruminant adipose fat. One sample was found to be of dairy origin using both GC–C–IRMS and HPLC–MS. The advantages of the various methods are discussed. Variations in lipid composition were observed between samples from different periods and excavated in diverse areas within the city of Sagalassos.     

Palaeontology of the Cerros Bayos section,Roca Formation (Danian), La Pampa Province,Argentina

Palynofloras from an outlier of Tertiary sediments in the One Tree Hill area north of Adelaide are nonmarine and correlate with similar assemblages from Middle Eocene North Maslin Sands from Maslin Bay and Golden Grove. Although there are similarities with time-equivalent Lower Nothofagidites asperus Zone palynofloras in the Gippsland Basin, a number of species in the South Australian palynofloras do not extend below the Late Eocene in the Gippsland sequences. This indicates earlier appearances for these species in southcentral Australia. The sediments overlie a highly weathered bedrock palaeosurface, indicating that a phase of significant weathering occurred prior to the Middle Eocene. A number of selected taxa are illustrated and their distribution in the palynofloras is discussed. Two new species, Proteacidites mildenhallii and Proteacidites parrawirrensis, are described and one species, Rhoipites byfieldensis, is emended.