Archaeology and conservation at Herculaneum: from the Maiuri campaign to the Herculaneum Conservation Project

Abstract

This article looks at two periods in the history of the archaeological site of Herculaneum (Italy) and the role of the archaeologist there. Amedeo Maiuri was in charge of the first major excavation campaign that uncovered the site from 1927 to 1961, but was also responsible for the site's restoration, presentation and maintenance. Much can be learnt from his approach, particularly with regard to site management – a fixed team of specialists continuously cared for the site – and his creation of what was effectively an open-air museum. The second example looks at the author's experiences with the Herculaneum Conservation Project, where the emphasis is on conservation interventions rather than excavation, but where the archaeologist has an important role in the conservation team and also has the opportunity to make new archaeological discoveries. The article concludes that the role of the archaeologist must evolve to include a professional responsibility for archaeological heritage that extends beyond its excavation.     

The Tenth Conference of the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics. Conservation: An Act of Discovery

Abstract

The Herculaneum Conservation Project has approached the conservation of a large-scale archaeological site (Herculaneum, Italy) suffering widespread forms of decay in two different ways: 1) with a site-wide campaign addressing conservation problems in areas most at risk and 2) with a case-study project for one urban block (Insula Orientalis I ) exploring some of the complex conservation challenges in more detail. One of these challenges is how to approach the repair of existing roofing and how to design new forms of protective shelter for those spaces that have never been covered. Short-, mid- and long-term solutions for the repair and substitution of existing roofing are being tested as part of the site-wide campaign, while in the case-study area more enduring solutions (new mid- and long-term) for new shelters are being trialled.     

Comparison of Original and Modern Mortars at the Herculaneum Archaeological Site

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to evaluate mineralogical, elemental, and thermal differences among original Roman joint mortars and those used in twentieth-century restoration campaigns taken from different areas at the Herculaneum archaeological site. The purpose is to improve the compatibility of restoration mortars. Roman and modern mortars were studied with petrography, thermal analysis and x-ray fluorescence investigations. The results indicate significant differences between the Roman and modern mortars which could facilitate the degradation process. Roman mortars, in particular, were composed of a coarser aggregate which was present in a lower ratio with binder in comparison with modern mortars.     

Infectious diseases and eating habits at Herculaneum (1st century AD,southern Italy)

This paper shows that many food remains excavated from Herculaneum were microbiologically contaminated, and that the Romans probably had continuous exposure to gastrointestinal diseases. However, palaeopathological analysis of skeletal remains from Herculaneum shows a low prevalence of non‐specific bone inflammation. Pomegranates and figs, consumed by the population, were mainly dried and invariably contaminated by Streptomyces, a bacterium that produces natural tetracycline, an antibiotic. Histological analysis of the human remains demonstrates fluorescence typical of this substance. The tetracycline‐labelled human remains show that the Roman inhabitants of Herculaneum ate food contaminated by Streptomyces, and this may explain the rarity of inflammatory bone diseases at the site due to non‐specific infection in the living population. This interpretation fits with therapeutic indications suggested by Roman physicians that preserved fruits were used to cure some inflammatory diseases. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thermal and Petrographic Characterization of Herculaneum Wall Plasters

Roman plasters sampled from different houses at the archaeological site of Herculaneum, Italy, (2010–12) were studied by means of petrography, thermal analysis and X‐ray fluorescence. Herculaneum plasters are composed by preparatory layers (arriccio) with a thickness of several centimetres and are based on a calcitic binder and volcanic scoriae as aggregates, covered by a thin final layer characterized by a low granulometry. Most of the sampled plasters can be placed into two groups based on the aggregate composition and classified as marmorino or intonachino. However, a similar aggregate composition did not induce superimposable thermal behaviour, thus suggesting that the samples underwent different ageing/weathering processes, with a consequent change of the ratio among the components.     

A Simple(R) Model to Predict the Source of Dietary Carbon in Individual Consumers

Quantitative individual human diet reconstruction using isotopic data and a Bayesian approach typically requires the inclusion of several model parameters, such as individual isotopic data, isotopic and macronutrient composition of food groups, diet‐to‐tissue isotopic offsets and dietary routing. In an archaeological context, sparse data may hamper a widespread application of such models. However, simpler models may be proposed to address specific archaeological questions. As a consequence of the intake of marine foods, individuals from the first century ad Roman site of Herculaneum showed well‐defined bone collagen radiocarbon age offsets from the expected terrestrial value. Taking as reference these radiocarbon offsets and using as model input stable isotope data (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N), the performance of two Bayesian mixing model instances (routed and concentration‐dependent model versus non‐routed and concentration‐independent) was compared to predict the carbon contribution of marine foods to bone collagen. Predictions generated by both models were in good agreement with observed values. The model with higher complexity showed only a slightly better performance in terms of accuracy and precision. This demonstrates that under similar circumstances, a simple Bayesian approach can be applied to quantify the carbon contribution of marine foods to human bone collagen.     

A Methodological Approach Towards Conservation

Abstract

Since conservation became a recognized discipline, professionals involved in conservation projects have tried to find the best criteria for their interventions. Often these criteria remain quite vague, based on the idea that every historic building has its own special conditions, which make its problems different from other buildings. This conviction, which is appropriate at one level, has serious consequences due to the lack of a consistent methodology. More than a lack of criteria, we might talk about a lack of 'habit' in identifying values in the Mediterranean region: the concept of values is much more widespread in Anglo-Saxon countries.

If we take a look at the history of conservation, there are a number of cases which are often used as models: for example, the Colosseum or the Arch of Titus in Rome, both interventions which are greatly admired and included in many conservation manuals. More recently there are projects which are widely accepted by the heritage conservation community as well: the paper explores the Palace of the Partal (Granada), the Villa Romana del Casale (Piazza Armerina), the theatre at Orange, and the Insula Orientalis I in Herculaneum. In this article, I suggest that there are constant elements within these conservation projects, reflecting typological, structural, constructional, functional, aesthetic, formal, historical, and symbolic values. These features represent a way of planning a conservation project and a critical methodology to judge the outcomes of the project in an objective manner. The methodology is qualitative rather than quantitative. All historic buildings have a set of values developed from their origins and throughout their history. These values can be analysed to extract the most important elements to be preserved. Analysing the values of our built heritage will allow us to create better decision-making processes.     

Bioarchaeological preservation and non-elite diet in the Bay of Naples: An analysis of the food remains from the Cardo V sewer at the Roman site of Herculaneum

Due to its burial by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, the level of biological preservation in the Roman town of Herculaneum is very high. The recovery and analysis of large quantities of material from the city's Cardo V sewer has provided the rare opportunity to study the diet of middle and lower class Romans living in an urban context in mid-1st century AD Italy. The sewer lacked an outflow point and instead functioned as a cesspit to collect the human and kitchen waste generated by those living in the multi-storey shop and apartment complex (Insula Orientalis II) situated above. In total, 220?l of soil was examined for carbonised and mineralised material, seashells, eggshells, otoliths and fish bones. 194 taxa were identified, including 94 botanical, 45 fish, 53 shellfish and two bird taxa. One-hundred and thirteen of the 194 taxa can be considered edible foodstuffs indicating a high level of dietary diversity. This article compares preservation conditions with those found in Pompeii and assess diet in relation to these findings. The level of preservation is found to be comparable between the two sites and no major taphonomic biases are observed. The diet of non-elite individuals in Herculaneum is found to consist of a few staple foods that are frequently supplemented by a wide range of other goods. Subtle differences in diet are observable within the sewer assemblage, most likely related to differences in wealth.     

A short note on the archaeometric study of two sculptures in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gabinetto Segreto</Emphasis> of Naples National Archeological Museum: the ‘Pan and the She-Goat’ group and the ‘Bikini Venus’

Presented here are the results of an archeological and archaeometric study of two famous marble sculptures displayed in the Gabinetto Segreto of the National Archeological Museum of Naples: the “Pan and She-Goat” group from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum and the statue of the “Bikini Venus” leaning on a statuette of Priapus from the House of Julia Felix in Pompeii. This study offers some art historical observations about the sculptures and the first minero-petrographic (polarizing microscopy on thin section and x-ray diffraction on powders) and isotopic (C and O stable isotope ratio) investigation of their marble types. The results indicate that the “Pan and She-Goat” group employed the statuary white Carrara variety, while the Parian lychnites was used for the “Bikini Venus”. Analyses proved also that the red finishing layer present on the latter statue is composed by sandyx.     

UBI SUNT MACELLA? THE CONTRIBUTION OF NON‐INVASIVE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY OF ROMAN FOOD MARKETS

While the remains of the well‐preserved and excavated towns of Pompeii, Ostia and Herculaneum provide us with a fascinating impression of their once bustling economic life, the study of urban economic space requires a more extensive geographical and methodological framework. This paper investigates whether the systematic use of non‐invasive techniques at other, often neglected, urban sites can deliver a meaningful contribution to the study of Roman urbanism, especially by revealing previously unknown foci of commercial activity in the Roman city. To illustrate the effectiveness of certain non‐destructive strategies, including geophysical prospection and aerial survey, we focus on a specific type of market building that was quite common in the Roman world, the macellum. The case studies presented here demonstrate how non‐invasive archaeological investigation, often in combination with other topographic operations, can facilitate the identification of macella and enhance studies of economic architecture and space in Roman towns in Italy and the provinces.     

Issues of In Situ Conservation at Jinsha,People’s Republic of China

Abstract

The archaeological site of Jinsha, in Sichuan Province, China, was excavated in 2001, revealing extensive evidence of a substantial 3000 years old settlement. The site was subsequently sheltered and in 2007 an on-site museum was constructed. The shelter’s performance, in terms of environmental control, public interpretation and site management, is assessed. The need for more scientific research on site material science is highlighted.     

Preservation of the Stone Age site of Isimila,Tanzania

Abstract

The Stone Age Acheulean site of Isimila is one of the most important sites in Tanzania. Excavated in the late 1950s, it has been open to the public since 1958. This note reviews the problems of preserving in situ the open-air activity floors excavated at Isimila, and describes measures taken by the Tanzanian authorities to manage and protect the site.     

Neolithic occupation of an artesian spring: KS043 in the Kharga Oasis,Egypt

Abstract

KS043 is a stratified site associated with a complex of artesian springs. The archaeological remains, as well as a series of radiocarbon determinations, date the site to between 4800 and 4200 b.c. Our study suggests a connection between Saharan pastoralists, forced to move into oasis areas by increasing aridification, and the first Predynastic cultures of the Nile Valley. The site is the only well dated stratified settlement attributed to the Late Neolithic in the eastern Sahara that is characterized by Tasian cultural traditions.     

Platform cache encampments: Implications for mobility strategies and the earliest ancestral Apaches

Abstract

The Hormiguero site is a large mountainside Apache residential site in the Peloncillo Mountains of southern Arizona that lies in the heart of historically documented Chiricahua Apache territory. It represents an encampment at an important caching location, a category of residential site that has not been previously described archaeologically. Ethnographic data are enlisted to understand this unique type of Apache residential site and a previously unknown cache form—the platform cache. Archaeological evidence is combined from a number of sites with caches like those at Hormiguero to interpret aspects of cultural identity and chronology including the presence of ancestral Apaches in southern Arizona as early as the 14th century a.d.     

SHEEPSHEAD COUNTRY: COASTAL WOODLAND SUBSISTENCE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF MACK BAYOU AND OTHER NORTHWEST FLORIDA SITES

Abstract

Zooarchaeological analysis of faunal remains from the Mack Bayou site produced new data related to coastal Woodland subsistence on the northern Gulf Coast of Florida. When the Mack Bayou data are compared with data from other Woodland sites on the northern Gulf Coast, a strong pattern of estuarine and shallow coastal waters utilization is evident, with notable but fairly minor site by site variation. It is also evident from these data that sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus) are a consistently important dietary component across the northern Gulf Coast, particularly on coastal sites in the Panhandle region of northwestern Florida.     

Excavations on the Site of the Tudor Manor House at Micheldever,Hampshire

Abstract

Trial excavations prior to building development on the site of Thomas Wriothesley’s important manor house built about 1537 suggest a continuous succession of large houses on the site from the 14th century to the 18th. The earliest structures may represent a country retreat for the Abbots of Hyde.     

Quantifying the Consumption of Obsidian at Neolithic Çatalhöyük,Turkey

Abstract

Archaeological studies of consumption are hampered by the lack of quantified data. New data from the Neolithic site of Catalhiiyiik in Turkey allows the annual consumption of obsidian at the site to be calculated as a minimum of between 116 to 318 kg. The method employed is simple and can be employed at other sites provided appropriate sampling, topographic survey, and dating strategies are implemented.     

Timber economy in the Roman Age: charcoal data from the key site of Herculaneum (Naples,Italy)

The city of Herculaneum (Naples, southern Italy), buried by the volcanic eruption of Mount Somma-Vesuvius in 79 ad, is a key site for understanding the timber economy during the Roman period. In this paper, the results of charcoal analysis of different building element types are presented. Beams, joists, poles, planks and door and window frames were investigated allowing us a view of which timber the Romans preferred for building in this area. We also fit the taxonomic results into the reconstruction of the ancient Campanian landscape, and finally, we discuss the knowledge that the Romans had about the technological properties of the wood that they used for building and the possible selection criteria that they followed in choosing them. Coniferous timber is the preferred material for building purposes. Abies alba is especially used, this fact confirming its stronger presence in southern Italian woods during the past and suggesting that its decline is mainly due to human overexploitation. The large presence of Cupressus sempervirens, selectively used for the production of poles, confirms that this tree was cultivated in plantations for timber production in the Vesuvius area. Furthermore, it might indicate that cypress could have been present as a natural tree in the local vegetation, suggesting a forest type that nowadays almost completely disappeared from this area and from the entire Italy. The findings of Juglans regia, Pinus pinea and Olea europaea, typical elements of the Mediterranean cultural landscape, show that their use was not limited to fruit production and that Romans also appreciated their timber. Beside these local resources, the presence of Picea abies and Picea/Larix indicates the importation of timber from northerly regions, probably the northern Apennines and the Alps.