Establishment of conservation,design and construction criteria for protective shelters at Fort Selden State Monument,New Mexico

Abstract

Foit Selden State Monument, located in southern New Mexico, consists of the exposed adobe ruins of a military post that was occupied from 1865 to 1981. A management plan for the site is currently being developed in which an option being considered for preservation is the construction of a protective shelter.

The process of establishing conservation, design and construction criteria for a potential shelter at Fort Selden involves the assessment of technical issues and the evaluation of public support for the criteria and purpose of the monument. The conservation concerns are based upon accepted standards for conservation and construction criteria while the design and construction standards involve a higher degree of Public concern, particularly the public expectations exerted on a historic site in the United States.

The criteria for Fort Selden are currently being codified. This paper outlines the preliminary criteria as well as the process by which these criteria will be established and meshed with the public expectations of the site. The planning process is presented and the underlying philosophies of deciding to shelter, designing the shelter and constructing the shelter. Future evaluations of the shelter's success can be gauged against these original criteria and mindset.     

Sheltering an archaeological structure in Petra A case-study of criteria,concepts, and implementation

Abstract

In 1993 an architectural competition for the construction of a shelter over a Byzantine church excavated in Petra between 1991 and 1992 was held by the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, Jordan. While a prize was awarded, none of the concepts presented were translated into a construction project. A contract was instead awarded to architect Robert Shutler, who worked in close cooperation with Jordanian and international archaeologists and heritage managers, and a reversible space-frame shelter was built. This paper examines the issue of defining criteria for shelter construction, and stresses the need for cooperation among stakeholders and specialists as part of the conservation process from the decision to shelter to the implementation of the project.     

Paleoindian subsistence strategies and late Pleistocene paleoenvironments in the northeastern and southwestern United States: a tooth wear analysis

Paleoindians of North America entered a continent undergoing rapid climatic and environmental changes. This paper is a preliminary contribution toward obtaining a better picture regarding how climate and environmental change might have impacted the first settlers of North America. The Paleoindian sites we analyzed are, from the oldest to the youngest, Ingleside (Texas), Blackwater Draw Locality No. 1 (New Mexico), Hiscock Site (New York), and Plainview Quarry (Texas). Paleoenvironmental reconstruction involves identifying the dietary traits of ungulate species that might reflect the environmental conditions where they were living, and also where they might have been hunted by Paleoindians. Such an approach is realized through tooth microwear and mesowear analyses. Results indicate that a variety of food resources were available for the ungulates at these sites as well as the likely presence of mosaic environments around these sites which allowed Paleoindians to exploit resources in a large variety of habitats. The application of a method that allows for the estimation of the duration of occupation at archaeological sites reveals that results for Blackwater Draw and Hiscock Site indicate a long-term occupation of probably several months. However, during short events, Paleoindians were most likely hunting herds of horse and bison when these prey were available near the site. Results indicate that Plainview Quarry was likely used only for short-term occupations, with large game hunting focusing on bison. These patterns identified at the archeological sites studied are related to the fact that Paleoindians follow a high-technology forager model and frequently shifted their territory depending on the composition and distribution of the large mammal fauna.     

Issues of In Situ Conservation at Jinsha,People’s Republic of China

Abstract

The archaeological site of Jinsha, in Sichuan Province, China, was excavated in 2001, revealing extensive evidence of a substantial 3000 years old settlement. The site was subsequently sheltered and in 2007 an on-site museum was constructed. The shelter’s performance, in terms of environmental control, public interpretation and site management, is assessed. The need for more scientific research on site material science is highlighted.     

Exploitation of wild mammals in South-west Ethiopia during the Holocene (4000 BC–500 AD): the finds from Moche Borago shelter (Wolayta)

Abstract

The rock shelter of Moche Borago in Wolayta Province, South-west Ethiopia, has provided evidence of human occupation during part of the Holocene. Recovery of more than 30,000 animal bones has allowed reconstruction of the exploitation of animals by humans from the 4th millennium BC until the first half of the 1st millennium AD. It could be demonstrated that humans exploited (mainly for food) a great diversity of mammals, especially bovids, and that there were very few diachronic changes observed in the fauna during the occupation. Remains of domestic animals have not been found, even in the most recent part of this period, suggesting that animal husbandry was a late introduction into this mountainous and isolated part of Ethiopia. The human inhabitants of the shelter appear to have exploited the surrounding environment, using its favourable position at the end of a stepped valley for mass killing of African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). The rich and diverse environments of Wolayta favoured the development of a specialised society that mastered the exploitation of wild animals throughout much of the Holocene.     

Desiccated plant macrofossils from the medieval castle of Marmorera,Switzerland, with a note on the identification of leaves of Cyperaceae

Abstract

During restoration work at the medieval castle of Marmorera, Graubünden canton, Switzerland, numerous desiccated plant remains were found — in a rock crevice that was protected from precipitation by a massive rock shelter. The identification of the remains showed that the majority could not have grown at the castle, but must have been transported to the site. Many of the plants came from warmer climates and were imported from lower lying regions, indicating the position of the castle at an important transalpine route. Among the finds was a lump of grass-like leaves for which for a method of preparation and identification was developed. The leaves turned out to be of Carex species that grow in wet habitats which were probably used as litter or as bedding material.     

Economic structures in Western Norway in the early iron age

In this issue of Norwegian Archaeological Review the book Økonomiske strukturer på Vestlandet i eldre jernalder (Economic structures in Western Norway in the Early Iron Age) by Knut Odner (1973 a) has been chosen as subject for discussion. The book is the second part of a major work on the settlement in a rock shelter called Ullshelleren in a Norwegian mountain valley; the first part of the publication (Odner 1969) has previously been reviewed and discussed in NAR (Myhre 1972, Bakka 1973, Odner 1973 b).

As an introduction to the discussion we reprint with a few editorial alterations the second part of Odner's article, Ecological settings for economic and social models (1972, pp. 637–649), previously published in Models in Archaeology edited by David L. Clarke. We are grateful to Mr. David L. Clarke and the publisher, Methuen &; Co. Ltd., for the permission to reproduce parts of this article.

Comments by Berta Stjernquist, Carl‐Axel Moberg, Gutorm Gjessing, Charlotte Blindheim, Heid Gj?stein Resi, Magnús Stefánsson and Axel Sommerfelt are followed by a reply from Knut Odner.     

The Tenth Conference of the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics. Conservation: An Act of Discovery

Abstract

The Herculaneum Conservation Project has approached the conservation of a large-scale archaeological site (Herculaneum, Italy) suffering widespread forms of decay in two different ways: 1) with a site-wide campaign addressing conservation problems in areas most at risk and 2) with a case-study project for one urban block (Insula Orientalis I ) exploring some of the complex conservation challenges in more detail. One of these challenges is how to approach the repair of existing roofing and how to design new forms of protective shelter for those spaces that have never been covered. Short-, mid- and long-term solutions for the repair and substitution of existing roofing are being tested as part of the site-wide campaign, while in the case-study area more enduring solutions (new mid- and long-term) for new shelters are being trialled.     

Analytical methods for the conservation of the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka,Kyrgyzstan

Abstract

The methods employed for selecting the repair material for the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka, a site located in the upper Chuy Valley, Kyrgyzstan, are described in this article. The temple is built of mud brick and was excavated during several campaigns between 1938 and 1998 with no provision being made for conservation. The first emergency protective measures were initiated in 2003 during a UNESCO project that included other sites located in the Chuy valley. Most of the eroded walls of the temple were given a temporary shelter coat of mud bricks, a method that has proved effective. The main problem after proving the shelter coat was how to assess the repair material for future conservation work (it is planned to repeat the application of the shelter coat, but with materials with improved performance). Assessment was carried out after extensive laboratory analysis of both historic and repair materials, but also after test wall construction and monitoring. The methods explained here could be of use to conservators working in similar projects in the Middle East or Asia.     

Conservation projects in Pergamon. Building Z and the shelter constructed above it

Abstract

The reconstruction and conservation of buildings in Pergamon has been an important aim of the excavations of the German Archaeological Institute Istanbul over the last twenty years. The paper discusses the structure known as Building Z situated about halfway up the slope to the acropolis of Pergamon on a rise between the terrace of the Sanctuary of Demeter and the precinct of the Temple of Hera. Although the southern fringes of this Hellenistic building were discovered in 1909, digging here was soon abandoned due to the very poor preservation of the walls. In 1990, a trench of the 'City Excavations' revealed the northern part of the building. The well-preserved Roman mosaic pavements and other remains found here — eventually exposing the best preserved examples of interior decoration yet discovered in the ancient city of Pergamon — prompted the construction of a shelter open to visitors. The construction of this shelter began in 1996 and was completed in 2004. The roofed area covers only the northern part of the former ancient building. The modern roof construction, on steel-trussed girders above the walls, has been deliberately designed as an independent unit.     

Some Evidence for Seasonality amongst Later Stone Age Hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa

Abstract

The Later Stone Age (LSA) period in Southern Africa is characterised by a succession of cultural traditions. The LSA hunter-gatherer populations were ancestral to the present-day San. They moved around in small bands, within a semi-fixed territory visiting open air and shelter sites to coincide with available resources.

The hunter-gatherers filled every niche in the environment, including the high mountains, deserts and semi-deserts, bush savanna and grass lands. They were well aware of the food sources available in their territories during the course of a year and utilized these opportunities. As winters in southern Africa are relatively mild, and most regions have foods available throughout the year, seasonality is difficult to demonstrate.

In only a few instances there is some evidence for seasonal use or seasonality. Age profiles of seals at Elands Bay Cave suggest short occupation periods during late winter and early spring. In the high mountains of South Africa and Lesotho, where winters are cold and frost and snow common, the faunal and floral remains suggest occupation during late spring, summer and early autumn. Abbot's Cave in the semi-arid central Karoo was used as a hunting lodge during September, relating to the lambing season and migratory behaviour of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis).     

Middle Paleolithic Behavioral Organization: 1993 Excavation of Tor Faraj,Southern Jordan

Abstract

Excavation of a Levantine Mousterian rockshelter exposed two living floors in the upper part of a deposit more than 3.5 m thick. An intrasite study, focusing on the spatial patterns of data recovered from the two floors, complements an earlier intersite study of settlement and procurement patterns. The arrangement of hearths and the spatial distributions of artifacts and manuports indicate redundant behavioral organization for the two components. Moreover, the behavioral patterns reflected in site use by the occupants of the shelter some 70,000 years ago strongly resemble those recorded for modern foragers.     

Foreign Jews in the western Alps (1938 – 43)

Abstract

This article examines the question of policy towards the Jews in the Italian occupied zone of southern France from 1940 to 1943. It develops the argument that in the World War II the Alps constituted a clearly demarcated geographical area that for Jewish refugees from all over Europe promised shelter and safety. A number of ‘exemplary cases’ (for example that of Angelo Donati) as well as an unpublished document relating to the case of ‘residence forcée’ in St Martin Vésubie, provided the opportunity for comparing different interpretations of Italian attitudes towards the Jews in those years.     

Site conservation during excavation: treatment of masonry,wall plaster and floor mosaic remains of a Byzantine church in Petra,Jordan

Abstract

The conservation treatments carried out between June 1992 and August 1993 on the architectural remains of a Byzantine basilica in Petra, Jordan, during and immediately after the excavation are described. The treatments completed during excavation included: stabilization and consolidation of certain sections of the basilica's sandstone ashlar masonry; cleaning and consolidation of the unpainted lime wall plaster decorating the basilica interior; cleaning and consolidation in situ of the extensive remains of a figurative mosaic pavement in the two side aisles, and the fragmentary remains of the opus sectile pavement in the central aisle. The consolidation treatments included injection grouting using hydraulic mortar mixes produced in Italy, and mortar repairs using slaked lime and hydraulic lime. The existence of the mosaic required preventive conservation measures during the excavation, such as the construction of a temporary shelter over the site during the winter, the use of temporary protective facings over damaged areas of the mosaic, as well as the temporary backfilling of the mosaic with soil over a layer of geotextile in order to protect the mosaic between the initial phase of conservation work and the construction of a permanent shelter for the site in the near future. The importance of having a conservator present on site during the critical phase of excavation, when all materials are most susceptible to damage, is emphasized. The Petra Church Project will hopefully serve as a model for future excavations in that it employed two conservators from the beginning of the excavation: one for small finds, the other responsible for the site and the architectural remains removed from the site during the excavation.     

Methodology,consetvation criteria and performance evaluation for archaeological site shelters

Abstract

The many intersecting issues that arise when deciding whether to shelter an archaeological site should be approached using a values-based methodology, one that has demonstrated its validity arid practical worth in conservation over recent decades. Nonetheless, pitfalls abound in the decision-making process and in establishing effective conservation criteria which should be based principally on a thorough understanding of the threats to the resource and the specific deterioration mechanisms operating, with the objective of creating a shelter that will preserve the site's identified values. An aspect that has received almost no attention in the past is evaluation of a shelter's performance, both qualitative and quantitative, in preserving the site. It is urged that this receive priority when establishing the conservation criteria during the initial phases of a sheltering project. Issues are illustrated from a range of diverse sites, including a number of published shelters. The paper first looks at the examples of the Laetoli (Tanzania) and Lark Quarry (Australia) trackway sites in the context of decision-making and conservation criteria, and then discusses two examples of evaluation: one quantitative, using an experimental shelter and the other discussing publications on a petroglyph site shelter.     

Managing the Archaeological Heritage: The Case of Akrotiri,Thera (Santorini)

Abstract

This article deals with the archaeological site of Akrotiri on the Cycladic island of Thera (Santorini), Greece, and demonstrates, in particular, how the construction of a new protective shelter has provided an opportunity for enhancing the present and future conservation and management of the site in accordance with, among other values, the aspirations of the local community. Drawing on the experience of the author as Director of the excavation, special emphasis will be placed on the features of the new bioclimatic shelter that can accommodate the continuous use of the site as both a scientific workshop and a tourist attraction.     

Long-term performance evaluation of an earthen grouting mortar: the Nuraghic complex of Genna Maria,Sardinia

Abstract

This paper presents a critical assessment of the long-term performance of an earth-based material employed nine years ago in conservation work on a building of massive, Cyclopean-style construction at the Genna Maria Nuraghic complex in central-southern Sardinia (Italy). The material was used for filling the large gaps between stones in the masonry walls to create a barrier to ingress of water into the masonry walls. In situ observations and laboratory analyses were conducted on samples of the grouting material to assess its condition after nine years.     

Everyone Begins as Fish & Captivated – by that

Abstract

An invited address in 1964 constitutes the pre-history of fractals, and a justification is given here why its publication is now of interest because of its interdisciplinary nature. Fractal geometry has been successful as mathematics and has – through computer graphics – pioneered a new art. But until 1975, the author's work was generally considered as premature. In the original address of 1964, which here follows the historical introduction, the author states the mathematical basis for his philosophy of the Second Stage of Indeterminism in Science. The term fractals was not coined until 11 years after the original address of 1964.     

Nydam Mose: In Situ Preservation at Work

Abstract

The site of Nydam Mose saw the beginning of systematic research into in situ preservation of waterlogged archaeological sites on land at the National Museum of Denmark. In the past fifteen years a generic approach to in situ preservation of archaeological sites has been developed based on this research. This article is primarily a review of this generic approach, summarizing the methods and results with particular reference to the published results from the investigations in Nydam Mose.     

Offshore Medicine

Abstract

Many renowned vegetable drugs of today would have gone into wider usage decades ago, if folklore and tradition about plants had been taken more seriously. The properties of many of these plants were known in some form or other to primitive man. The study of the direct relationship between plants and man is an interdisciplinary science; it is called ethnobotany.

Current interest in broad-based and inexpensive health care, new drugs and new or supplementary nutritious foods has prompted ethnobotanical studies in several undeveloped societies of the world. Reference is here made to various aspects of ethnobotany and to some significant research of the last 30 years. These cover not only plants employed for food and in medicine but also plants used in cordage, dyes, shelter, worship or other cultural and social aspects; these are explained and examples are provided. Primitive man understood the need for conservation of natural resources, and he exploited plants only to meet his minimum needs. The point is stressed that recording and analysis of the surviving ethnobotanical folklore is of great significance for the human race.