Establishment of conservation,design and construction criteria for protective shelters at Fort Selden State Monument,New Mexico

Abstract

Foit Selden State Monument, located in southern New Mexico, consists of the exposed adobe ruins of a military post that was occupied from 1865 to 1981. A management plan for the site is currently being developed in which an option being considered for preservation is the construction of a protective shelter.

The process of establishing conservation, design and construction criteria for a potential shelter at Fort Selden involves the assessment of technical issues and the evaluation of public support for the criteria and purpose of the monument. The conservation concerns are based upon accepted standards for conservation and construction criteria while the design and construction standards involve a higher degree of Public concern, particularly the public expectations exerted on a historic site in the United States.

The criteria for Fort Selden are currently being codified. This paper outlines the preliminary criteria as well as the process by which these criteria will be established and meshed with the public expectations of the site. The planning process is presented and the underlying philosophies of deciding to shelter, designing the shelter and constructing the shelter. Future evaluations of the shelter's success can be gauged against these original criteria and mindset.     

Site conservation during excavation: treatment of masonry,wall plaster and floor mosaic remains of a Byzantine church in Petra,Jordan

Abstract

The conservation treatments carried out between June 1992 and August 1993 on the architectural remains of a Byzantine basilica in Petra, Jordan, during and immediately after the excavation are described. The treatments completed during excavation included: stabilization and consolidation of certain sections of the basilica's sandstone ashlar masonry; cleaning and consolidation of the unpainted lime wall plaster decorating the basilica interior; cleaning and consolidation in situ of the extensive remains of a figurative mosaic pavement in the two side aisles, and the fragmentary remains of the opus sectile pavement in the central aisle. The consolidation treatments included injection grouting using hydraulic mortar mixes produced in Italy, and mortar repairs using slaked lime and hydraulic lime. The existence of the mosaic required preventive conservation measures during the excavation, such as the construction of a temporary shelter over the site during the winter, the use of temporary protective facings over damaged areas of the mosaic, as well as the temporary backfilling of the mosaic with soil over a layer of geotextile in order to protect the mosaic between the initial phase of conservation work and the construction of a permanent shelter for the site in the near future. The importance of having a conservator present on site during the critical phase of excavation, when all materials are most susceptible to damage, is emphasized. The Petra Church Project will hopefully serve as a model for future excavations in that it employed two conservators from the beginning of the excavation: one for small finds, the other responsible for the site and the architectural remains removed from the site during the excavation.     

A botanical approach to the planning of archaeological,parks in Italy

Abstract

The positive role of plants in archaeological areas, as well as the enegative action of their roots in causing structural damage, are summarized in this paper. The traditional approach to the planning of vegetation in Italian archaeological areas is briefly described. A general philosophy for botanical projects in these sites is proposed, taking into account ecological, historical and conservation parameters. The principal aims of the suggested approach are: protection of the naturalistic, historical and landscape features of the existing site, in so far as they are compatible with the archaeological structures; and the introduction of new elements, in keeping with the original landscape, which exploit shelter effects or improve microclimatic and soil characteristics, and are also ‘ornamental’. The criteria for evaluating the characteristics of the site from the naturalistic and from the historical and landscaping points of view are explained. Also briefly. discussed, are congruity with the history and character of the site, overall compatibility with archaeological structures, usefulness for reconstructing specific environments, conservation Value for the site and aesthetic and economic criteria for the selection of species to introduce.     

Sheltering an archaeological structure in Petra A case-study of criteria,concepts, and implementation

Abstract

In 1993 an architectural competition for the construction of a shelter over a Byzantine church excavated in Petra between 1991 and 1992 was held by the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, Jordan. While a prize was awarded, none of the concepts presented were translated into a construction project. A contract was instead awarded to architect Robert Shutler, who worked in close cooperation with Jordanian and international archaeologists and heritage managers, and a reversible space-frame shelter was built. This paper examines the issue of defining criteria for shelter construction, and stresses the need for cooperation among stakeholders and specialists as part of the conservation process from the decision to shelter to the implementation of the project.     

A Methodological Approach Towards Conservation

Abstract

Since conservation became a recognized discipline, professionals involved in conservation projects have tried to find the best criteria for their interventions. Often these criteria remain quite vague, based on the idea that every historic building has its own special conditions, which make its problems different from other buildings. This conviction, which is appropriate at one level, has serious consequences due to the lack of a consistent methodology. More than a lack of criteria, we might talk about a lack of 'habit' in identifying values in the Mediterranean region: the concept of values is much more widespread in Anglo-Saxon countries.

If we take a look at the history of conservation, there are a number of cases which are often used as models: for example, the Colosseum or the Arch of Titus in Rome, both interventions which are greatly admired and included in many conservation manuals. More recently there are projects which are widely accepted by the heritage conservation community as well: the paper explores the Palace of the Partal (Granada), the Villa Romana del Casale (Piazza Armerina), the theatre at Orange, and the Insula Orientalis I in Herculaneum. In this article, I suggest that there are constant elements within these conservation projects, reflecting typological, structural, constructional, functional, aesthetic, formal, historical, and symbolic values. These features represent a way of planning a conservation project and a critical methodology to judge the outcomes of the project in an objective manner. The methodology is qualitative rather than quantitative. All historic buildings have a set of values developed from their origins and throughout their history. These values can be analysed to extract the most important elements to be preserved. Analysing the values of our built heritage will allow us to create better decision-making processes.     

Interpreting the past: Presenting archaeological sites to the public

Abstract

A wide range of methodologies have been applied to promote the conservation of exposed and managed archaeological sites, including shelters. Commonly used as a protective measure in many areas of the world, shelters are not as common in the USA. In addition there have been few efforts to evaluate scientifically their use and efficacy. As a response to the recognized need to further scholarship and dialogue about shelters, a colloquium on the topic was held in Tumacacori, Arizona, in January 2001. The colloquium goals focused on research, exchange of information, the advancement of methodological approaches, incorporation of sheltering concepts into planning processes and identifying field needs. To achieve these aims, the following four themes were developed:

? deciding to shelter

? establishing conservation, design and construction criteria

? designing and constructing shelters

? evaluating shelter performance.

The colloquium followed a course of presentations, site visits and a final plenary session summing up the issues put forth. Participants represented a cross-section of disciplines and a range of international experiences.     

Analytical methods for the conservation of the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka,Kyrgyzstan

Abstract

The methods employed for selecting the repair material for the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka, a site located in the upper Chuy Valley, Kyrgyzstan, are described in this article. The temple is built of mud brick and was excavated during several campaigns between 1938 and 1998 with no provision being made for conservation. The first emergency protective measures were initiated in 2003 during a UNESCO project that included other sites located in the Chuy valley. Most of the eroded walls of the temple were given a temporary shelter coat of mud bricks, a method that has proved effective. The main problem after proving the shelter coat was how to assess the repair material for future conservation work (it is planned to repeat the application of the shelter coat, but with materials with improved performance). Assessment was carried out after extensive laboratory analysis of both historic and repair materials, but also after test wall construction and monitoring. The methods explained here could be of use to conservators working in similar projects in the Middle East or Asia.     

The decision to shelter archaeological sites Three case-studies from Sicily

Abstract

The decision to provide a protective shelter for exposed archaeological remains is illustrated by examining case studies of three sites in Sicily that were provided with protective measures in the 1950s. The three protective shelters were designed by the same architect, Franco Minissi, for the sites of Gela, the Villa Romana del Casale (Piazza Armerina) and Heraclea Minoa. His work on protective shelters is viewed in the broader context of the development at that time in Italy of Cesare Brandi's theory of restoration and of Minissi's own philosophy of 'musealizzazione' for the protection of historic sites and their integration into contemporary society.     

Managing the Archaeological Heritage: The Case of Akrotiri,Thera (Santorini)

Abstract

This article deals with the archaeological site of Akrotiri on the Cycladic island of Thera (Santorini), Greece, and demonstrates, in particular, how the construction of a new protective shelter has provided an opportunity for enhancing the present and future conservation and management of the site in accordance with, among other values, the aspirations of the local community. Drawing on the experience of the author as Director of the excavation, special emphasis will be placed on the features of the new bioclimatic shelter that can accommodate the continuous use of the site as both a scientific workshop and a tourist attraction.     

Visitor Management,the Development of Sustainable Cultural Tourism and Local Community Participation at Chogha Zanbil,Iran

Abstract

Chogha Zanbil, an Elamite ziggurat and UNESCO World Heritage Site in Iran, has considerable potential as a cultural tourism destination but currently it receives a surprisingly small number of visitors. The site has seen a successful international conservation project over the past decade: now it needs a complete heritage strategy, which will give sufficient weight to developing sustainable tourism in a way that ensures the site's conservation, as well as its effective presentation to the public. This paper combines existing approaches to sustainable cultural development with primary research in Iran, including interviews with different stakeholders. It uses the Chogha Zanbil case study to suggest how visitor management strategies and cultural tourism can equip a site with the necessary tools to receive visitors and manage their impact while generating revenue for the site's maintenance and preservation. It also highlights the importance of local community participation in this process and provides examples of how local villagers can participate in, and benefit from, the development of sustainable cultural tourism at Chogha Zanbil.     

The Tenth Conference of the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics. Conservation: An Act of Discovery

Abstract

The Herculaneum Conservation Project has approached the conservation of a large-scale archaeological site (Herculaneum, Italy) suffering widespread forms of decay in two different ways: 1) with a site-wide campaign addressing conservation problems in areas most at risk and 2) with a case-study project for one urban block (Insula Orientalis I ) exploring some of the complex conservation challenges in more detail. One of these challenges is how to approach the repair of existing roofing and how to design new forms of protective shelter for those spaces that have never been covered. Short-, mid- and long-term solutions for the repair and substitution of existing roofing are being tested as part of the site-wide campaign, while in the case-study area more enduring solutions (new mid- and long-term) for new shelters are being trialled.     

Archaeological Site Management and Local Involvement: A Case Study from Abu Rawash,Egypt

Abstract

Local involvement is an essential element of successful archaeological site management. Recognition of the role of the local community could make a great contribution in improving the present critical situation of many archaeological sites worldwide. In Egypt, where internationally renowned archaeological sites attract both academic and tourism interests, archaeological sites and monuments are suffering from different issues. Amongst the various causes is the failure to recognize the relationship between the sites and the present society — both the local community and other stakeholders — and this has negatively influenced the sites. Not only have the local communities been given limited access to knowledge, and limited opportunities to become involved in the archaeology, but also their attempts to pursue a better standard of living have been restricted for the sake of protecting the national heritage. In this article I use a case study from Abu Rawash to explore strategies that could encourage local involvement in site management, through capacity building and communication with the government and other stakeholders. Although local involvement may not provide a drastic improvement of an individual site's condition, the principle of local involvement should contribute to a general improvement in Egypt, where conservation efforts largely focus on physical materials and little attention is given to the society surrounding the archaeological remains.     

Conservation projects in Pergamon. Building Z and the shelter constructed above it

Abstract

The reconstruction and conservation of buildings in Pergamon has been an important aim of the excavations of the German Archaeological Institute Istanbul over the last twenty years. The paper discusses the structure known as Building Z situated about halfway up the slope to the acropolis of Pergamon on a rise between the terrace of the Sanctuary of Demeter and the precinct of the Temple of Hera. Although the southern fringes of this Hellenistic building were discovered in 1909, digging here was soon abandoned due to the very poor preservation of the walls. In 1990, a trench of the 'City Excavations' revealed the northern part of the building. The well-preserved Roman mosaic pavements and other remains found here — eventually exposing the best preserved examples of interior decoration yet discovered in the ancient city of Pergamon — prompted the construction of a shelter open to visitors. The construction of this shelter began in 1996 and was completed in 2004. The roofed area covers only the northern part of the former ancient building. The modern roof construction, on steel-trussed girders above the walls, has been deliberately designed as an independent unit.     

Early Maritime Desert Dwellers in Namaqualand,South Africa: A Holocene Perspective on Pleistocene Peopling

ABSTRACT

South Africa's northern Namaqualand coastal desert is the southern extension of the Namib. Today, this region is semi-desert with patchy subsistence resources and scarce, unpredictable rainfall. Yet this ancient desert landscape possesses residues of human activity stretching back into the Middle Pleistocene, evidenced by heavily weathered surface finds, including handaxes and Victoria West cores. Such old finds in so harsh an environment raise important questions: how do human movements into this area relate to local palaeoenvironmental changes, and how has this relationship changed through time? While no dated Middle Pleistocene sites presently exist to reconstruct the earliest hominin dispersals, several late Pleistocene sites now have chronostratigraphic sequences that can be brought to bear on these questions. This article presents chronological and subsistence-settlement data for one such site, Spitzkloof A Rockshelter in northern Namaqualand's rugged Richtersveld. Humans are shown to have visited the site very sporadically between ～50,000 and 17,000 cal BP. Unlike most of the subcontinent, the most intensive occupations occur during early Marine Isotope Stage 2, when multiple proxies suggest enhanced humidity associated with intensified winter rainfall. We examine these data using the region's better-developed Holocene archaeological record to create predictions about the earliest coastal desert dwellers.     

Promotion of a neglected heritage at Stone Age sites in the Western Cape,South Africa

Abstract

All archaeological sites in South Africa are protected in terms of the National Monuments Act, yet some have been badly damaged by vandals, unauthorized collectors and the effects of natural and anthropogenic erosion. In an effort to minimize such damage, the policy in the past has been either to restrict access or to keep a low profile, in relation both to rock art and excavated sites. Coupled with the fact that, in the past, the precolonial period has not been included in school history curricula, this policy has had a negative effect. South Africans generally have a limited knowledge of the results of research on rock art and archaeology and are not aware of the legislation. Furthermore, there is no infrastructure and no market for promoting such sites for tourism. The National Monuments Council has identified the need for public education in this field within a broader goal of promoting a common heritage for all South Africans in this time of political change. Three examples of recent active intervention are given in this paper. Stone Age living sites at Nelson Bay Cave and Matjes River rock shelter have been developed as local attractions, and protective conservation measures have been put into practice at rock art sites that are open to the public in the Western Cape.     

Universal Access for Universal Value: Creating Disabled Access at Heritage Sites for those with Mobility Impairments

Abstract

In today's society it is recognized that all people, regardless of disability, should be welcomed at heritage sites. As mobility impairments are one of the most common types of disability faced by visitors to heritage sites, this study will look at how the changing views on disability discrimination have affected heritage sites by reviewing current legislation and comparing it with visits to heritage sites in the UK and the US. For this purpose, site visits looking at adaptations for mobility impairments were carried out at fifteen sites in the UK and six sites in the US. There are additionally three case studies: a comparison between a UK and a US early nineteenth-century naval vessel, a site with traditional adaptation methods, and one that has creatively designed access. Overall, both the UK and the US have adopted similar methods for creating disabled access. Yet, the research shows that although many sites have designed some type of access, there is no conformity as to how this access is achieved. In addition, many sites use the loopholes in legislation to ensure that little is changed in the physical material. In the end, it is evident that more must be done to find a compromise between accessibility and preservation.     

Preservation of Earthen Sites in Remote Areas: the Buddhist Monastery of Ajina Tepa,Tajikistan

Abstract

The Buddhist monastery of Ajina Tepa is one of the most significant in Central Asia as it was fully excavated using up-to-date archaeological methods and was extensively documented. The site is a sophisticated blend of earthen architectural forms, sculptural detail and wall painting decoration, all of which are unique in the area. The site is located in south Tajikistan along the Vahsh valley, about 13 km east from the modern city of Kurgan Tybe.

The aim of the paper is to give an overview of the UNESCO/Japan Trust Fund project 'Preservation of the Buddhist Monastery of Ajina Tepa, Tajikistan (Heritage of the Ancient Silk Roads)'. The paper describes the historical background, the main conservation threats, the analytical work in the selection of repair material, the preparatory work before conservation, the documentation activities, and the conservation work carried out at the site.     

Bipolar Reduction and Behavioral Variability During the Mid-Late Holocene at Eagle's Nest,Mount Sinai Harbor,New York

Recent syntheses for the Long Island Sound region argue for long-term cultural continuity amongst Holocene coastal hunter-gatherers. These notions derive primarily from studies of quartz lithic assemblages, which archaeologists argue show structural stasis over time. The remaining variability is explained with a ‘distance to source' model in which near-coastal sites tend to show a lack of quartz conservation while interior sites show quartz recycling. Under this model, technological strategies traditionally associated with raw material conservation (e.g., bipolar reduction) should not occur at near-coastal sites. We test the ‘distance to source’ model by reexamining a quartz lithic assemblage from Eagle's Nest-Long Island's richest Holocene coastal hunter-gatherer site. We find conclusive evidence for bipolar reduction in the site's “block/shatter” materials. Toolmakers used bipolar reduction to conserve raw material. Toolmakers also used anvils and bipolar reduction to open quartz cobbles, to stabilize freehand cores, to efficiently access cutting edges, and possibly to create crushed coarse quartz temper for pottery production. Our results point to previously unrecognized aspects of behavioral variability in the Eagle's Nest lithic assemblage and to possible revision of the ‘distance to source’ model. Similar variability may be present at other North American sites with quartz “block/shatter” material.     

Estimation of the Original Number of Individuals from Paired Bone Counts Using Estimators of the Krantz Type

Abstract

In 1968, G. S. Krantz proposed a method for estimating the original number of animals deposited at an archaeological site when bone counts have been reduced, whether by attritional processes or by a failure to find all the bones. His formula involved using the number of unmatched left, unmatched right, and matched pairs of a class of paired bone. In this paper we investigate estimators derived using Krantz's assumptions from both theoretical and practical viewpoints and make a number of recommendations; for example, that Krantz's estimators are useful only in relatively large assemblages. The method is applied to fish bones obtained from three sites in New Zealand, and practical difficulties with the procedure are described.     

Conservation of Mining Sites in the Gwydyr Forest Area of the Snowdonia National Park

Abstract

The Gwydyr Forest near Llanrwst in the Snowdonia National Park contains a significant number of mining remains in an area of some eight square kilometres. These structures provide examples of a whole range of mining and dressing processes from the use of simple hand dressing techniques to the foundations of an early flotation mill. In the recent past, buildings have been needlessly demolished but this process has been partially arrested in the last five years, helped by the introduction of a land reclamation scheme which, in addition to public safety, takes account of the industrial archaeology of the area. Up to 1989, conservation work had been carried out on only one site, but schemes have also been proposed for two others. The purpose of this paper is to indicate the approaches taken and the factors to be considered before conservation work can be carried out on mining sites.