分歧与协调:佐藤内阁对联合国中国代表权问题的政策选择

亲台反华的日本佐藤内阁在1971年联合国中国代表权问题上费尽心机,不仅是为台湾当局继存于联合国的“逆重要问题案”的始作俑者,甚至一度对美国将安理会席位交归中华人民共和国的主张持“保留意见”。但随着尼克松访华计划的公布,视日美关系为日本对外关系核心的佐藤内阁迅速调整政策,公开与美国政府在联合国图谋“两个中国”并存局面。佐藤内阁顽固追随美国在联合国中国代表权问题上的政策立场,不仅遭到日本国内要求调整对华关系的反对力量的猛烈攻击,同时也使执政的自民党在对华政策上的内部分歧越发难以调和,并最终导致佐藤内阁失去调整对华政策的历史契机。     

中法建交谈判中关于台湾问题的“三项默契”——《周恩来总理谈话要点》形成考释

1963年法国前总理富尔的中国之行是中法建交中的关键阶段,而定稿于11月2日的《周恩来总理谈话要点》又是富尔访华最终取得成功的基础。富尔访华初期,中法虽都有建立大使级外交关系的愿望,但在台湾问题上的分歧使会谈陷入僵局。其后,中方在坚决反对任何形式的"两个中国"原则的基础上,先后提出了有步骤建交方案、直接建交方案,最终在三项默契基础上同富尔达成了一致。中方把最终形成的默契以文本形式交给富尔,这就是《周恩来总理谈话要点》。总的看来,该要点是中法平等协商的结果,法国在其中承担了承认中华人民共和国政府为代表中国的唯一合法政府、支持中国恢复在联合国的合法席位、法台不再保持"外交"关系等义务。但谈话要点也是求同存异的结果,并未全面解决中法在台湾问题上的分歧。     

美英在联合国中国代表权问题上的分歧与协调(1950-1951)

有关中国在联合国的代表权问题,美国的基本立场是反对中国代表权变更,尽管在朝鲜战争爆发前后有微妙的区别,此前主要是私下操纵,此后则公开阻挠。英国的投票立场经历了从弃权、赞成中国代表权变更到最终支持美国在联合国搁置对中国代表权问题讨论的演变过程。而且,英国赞成新中国取得合法代表权并不意味着取缔国民党集团的非法代表,其政策转轨亦不同步。在1950年1-6月,英国开始由弃权走向有条件赞成新中国取得席位,美英分歧凸现,各自为自己的立场游说其他安理会成员国。1950年6月-1951年1月是美英分歧与协调的高峰时期,英国逐渐走向赞成接纳新中国代表同时驱逐国民党非法代表的立场。美国则不遗余力地反对中国代表权的变更。1951年2-6月,英国由赞成中国代表权变更转向支持美国在联合国搁置对这一问题的讨论,美英纷争基本平息。美英在这一问题上的分歧除了反映两国对华政策的差异外,也折射出两国对联合国组织的不同理念。     

中国国民政府与琉球问题

20世纪40年代,中国国民政府曾一度面临解决中、日之间悬而未决的琉球问题的有利时机。但是,由于国民政府内部分歧重重,以及二战后最高当局忙于内战,没有能够在该问题上达成任何政府共识,最终丧失了解决琉球问题的法理权。而且,伴随着东、西方冷战的加剧以及国民政府在国共内战后败退台湾,琉球问题被美国所操纵而成为美、日冲绳问题,从而给海峡两岸的中国人民留下深深的历史遗憾。     

蒋介石力阻美国将台湾问题"国际化"

蒋介石退踞台湾期间,对于美国寻找各种机会使台湾问题"国际化"的企图,基本上采取抗拒的立场.具体表现在在20世纪40年代末到50年代初期,针对美国叫嚣的"台湾地位未定论",蒋介石通过对<开罗宣言>的反复重申,坚持了台湾是中国一部分的立场,维护了中国对台湾的主权地位;在50年代中后期两次台海危机中,蒋介石坚守金门、马祖这两个与大陆保持联系的纽带,拒绝美国以海峡为界,实现"划峡而治"、制造"两个中国"的图谋,并在一定程度上与大陆形成一种默契,共同抵制美国的分裂活动;从60年代开始,借恢复中国政府在联合国的席位、美国企图在联合国内部造成"一中一台"的既成事实,针对这种情况,包括台湾蒋介石当局在内的海峡两岸中国人,取得一定共识,即在国际社会只能有一个代表中国主权的中央政府,台湾是中国领土不可分割的一部分,并共同挫败美国以联合国名义分裂中国的图谋.     

1950年英美向五届联大提交的台湾问题提案

本文主要基于美英双方的外交档案,对美英向五届联大提交的台湾问题提案进行了探讨。文章认为这一提案是美英在台湾问题上利害冲突、彼此妥协的产物,但双方的出发点迥异:英国力图通过国际社会承诺台湾将最终回归中国,以缓和美国挑起的台湾危机对英国远东利益的损害,而美国根本无意通过联合国解决台湾未来地位问题,旨在迷惑国际舆论,缓解眼前危机,达到事实上将台湾同中国大陆分离出去的长远目的。美国的真正动机从根本上注定了这一提案短命的结局。     

抗日战争后期到朝鲜战争爆发期间美国对台政策的演变

抗日战争后期到朝鲜战争爆发期间,影响美国对台政策的因素,既有美国内部军方与政府之间不同对台政策的分歧,也有因中国政权转移所导致的美国对台政策的改变,更有因远东国际局势突变而引起的美国对台政策的急剧变化。本文拟在全面了解现有研究成果的基础上,系统考察这一时期美国对台政策的演变,探究台湾问题的由来。     

中国为何在八十年代申请"复关"

1971年中国恢复联合国席位之后,和资本主义 经济的两大支柱--世界银行和国际货币基金组织立 刻建立了关系,之所以与关贸总协定接触迟缓则与台 湾问题息息相关。在"文革"时期有一句口号"政治挂 帅".经济为政治服务,外贸要服从外交。当时中国在世 界银行和国际货币基金组织的席位均被台湾占据。在 国际组织中"驱台"就成为当时的一项政治任务。 在关贸总协定中,中国是关贸总协定生效时的创     

台美英围绕联合国中国代表权问题的交涉（1951-1955）

中国代表权问题不仅是美苏为首的两大阵营对抗的最重要的冷战问题之一,而且是美国阵营内部歧见纷呈的问题。朝鲜战争爆发后,维护台湾在联合国的中国代表权符合美国的战略利益,但是英国并不紧随美国的指挥棒合拍地起舞。台湾利用美苏阵营的尖锐对抗,以小搏大,竭力争取美国支持直接否决反对台湾在联合国的中国代表权的方案。台美英三方均有各自的立场与考量,有时限的“缓议案”是三方博弈后的产物。随着美苏阵营对抗的渐趋缓和,台湾当局所能做的必定越来越多的是妥协与退让。     

台湾法律地位的扭曲——英国有关政策的演变及与美国的分歧（1949-1951）。

日本战败后,台湾回归中国。在相当一段时期内,英美政府对台湾地位的变更并没有提出任何疑问。但是,随着中国共产党取胜的前景越来越明朗,英美对台政策开始发生变化。为了防止中共占领台湾,英美都提出了在对日和约缔结之前,台湾在法律上还是日本领土的说法。中华人民共和国成立后,英美态度一度出现转变,明确承认台湾是中国的一部分,准备接受中共占领台湾的现实可能。朝战爆发后,美国对台政策再次发生转变。英国尽管仍表示要遵守开罗宣言的承诺,将台湾交还中国,但最终不得不把它与朝鲜问题挂钩,而暂时回避了履行开罗宣言的责任。在缔结对日和约的过程中,英国曾坚持应邀请中华人民共和国的代表参加,并在和约中规定日本将台湾交还中国。但在美国的反对下,英国最终退让,英美达成国共双方均不参与和约签署、和约只言日本放弃台湾主权而不明文交给中国的妥协。50年代初英美围绕台湾地位的讨论充分表明,台湾地位问题的提出是冷战背景下人为的产物。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.