试析《1948年英国国籍法》

第二次世界大战后民族解放运动风起云涌,英国政府为了延缓殖民地独立的进程,在英国工党的推动下制定了《1948年英国国籍法》。该法案对法律和传统习俗都进行了重大变革,明确规定无论英国及其殖民地公民还是独立后的英联邦国家公民,都能以英国国民的身份自由移民进入英国。这一法案不仅为二战后大规模有色移民的涌入提供了法律依据,而且还加强了英帝国和英联邦的凝聚力,对战后英国的政治和社会均产生了广泛而深远的影响。     

英国的殖民地政策与北美独立运动的兴起

北美 1 3个殖民地是英国人建立和统治的海外领地 ,北美独立运动首先是一场政治分离运动。英国对北美殖民地的政策比较宽松 ,使北美获得了稳步而迅速的发展。正是这种发展使之具备了谋取政治独立的经济和社会基础。所谓“高压政策”并不是反英运动的导因 ,而是其不断升级的结果。因此 ,独立运动并不是殖民地居民对英国统治的被动反抗 ,而是他们主动寻求更大利益的行动。     

太平洋战争前后英日殖民统治与马来亚独立建国运动

英国在其殖民统治期间对马来亚各个族群实施分而治之的政策。境内的非马来人被视为外来者,马来人被视为原住民而享有各种特殊的权利。太平洋战争爆发后,日本的殖民统治得到当地许多马来民族主义者的支持。日本殖民政府对马来亚社会分而治之的方针,以及亲日的马来民兵和华人领导的抗日军的对抗,激发了战后马来人和华人激烈的族群冲突。华人的积极抗日促进英国制定了马来亚联盟方案,认可华人在马来亚生根发展的权利,但也在战后激发马来人开展"民族大团结运动"。由于战争时期崛起的马来亚共产党在战后发动武装革命,英殖民政府积极扶持右派华人领袖和亲英的马来领袖来组织自治政府,并以宽松的条件开放公民权利于非马来人,以打击马共。此举加速了马来亚的独立进程,促进了一个多族群共治的新国家的诞生。     

英属中部和东部非洲殖民地的城镇劳动力政策

自19世纪末确立对中部和东部非洲殖民地的殖民统治之后,英国殖民者试图在殖民地城镇中维持移民劳动制度。按照英国殖民者关于非洲社会的想象,部落是非洲社会基本构成单位,非洲人无法适应现代工业经济和城镇生活,而城镇中的非洲人只不过是暂时逗留的"去部落化"人口。20世纪30年代起,随着非洲殖民地经济的发展和非洲工人罢工运动的蓬勃发展,殖民当局被迫接受非洲人在城镇和现代工业经济中的存在,转而实行城镇劳动力稳定化政策。这一政策的变化表明,英国殖民统治很难有效控制非洲社会变革进程,反映出殖民霸权的脆弱性,这构成非殖民化的重要社会背景。     

马来亚华人抗日武装与马来亚联盟公民权计划

太平洋战争时期, 英国殖民当局针对马来亚地区制定了马来亚联盟计划及马来亚联盟公民权计划。英国制定公民权计划主要是由于下列因素的影响: 第一, 主要由华人参与、由马共领导的抗日武装力量受到英国的高度重视, 面对马共提出的政治权利要求, 英国绝不可漠然视之, 公民权计划与此密切相关; 第二, 给予马来亚华人所谓的“政治权利”, 有利于切断当地华人与中国的联系,抵消中国政府对马来亚华人的影响; 第三, 由于马来苏丹不愿承认当地华人的政治身份, 解决华人的政治地位问题成为英国剥夺马来苏丹主权的一个有利的借口。由于华人政策和公民权计划中包含着许多种族不平等甚至容易引起种族纷争的内容, 因此, 英国制定这一计划与其说是要促进马来亚各民族的融合不如说是要在马来亚各民族间制造新的障碍, 也很难说英国制定这一计划是为马来亚自治做准备。     

英国的法治传统对北美殖民地的影响

英国的法治传统对北美殖民地的影响是深远的,一直延续到美国建国,迄今为止在美国法治法律中尚有很多渊源可寻。概括地说,英国的法治传统对北美殖民地的影响主要体现在两方面,一是对北美殖民地法律建设进程的影响,一是对北美独立战争的催化。     

英国战后马来亚政策的演变及其影响

英国战后马来亚政策的目的,在于加强和延长在马来亚的殖民统治,为此采取的各种政策,不仅影响着马来亚的独立进程,对独立后马来西亚的族群关系和政治发展也产生了非常深刻的影响。本文将着重探讨战后英国对马政策的目的,研究殖民政府为加强或延长对马殖民统治所采用的多种手法,及其对独立后马来西亚族群关系和政治发展的影响。     

文化相对主义与间接统治制度

19世纪末至 2 0世纪早期 ,文化相对主义思潮在英国社会兴起 ,它对传统的种族主义观念进行了修正 ,其主要观点是土著地区有其独特的文化特性 ;英国的殖民统治应致力于保存殖民地的传统社会、政治机构。而当时英国对广大附属殖民地采取了新创建的“间接统治”制度 ,它较好地解决了维护英国权威与尊重土著种族的权利之间的平衡问题 ,因而产生了极大的影响。尽管这一制度的形成有赖于诸多因素 ,但不可否认 ,它与文化相对主义在兴起背景及主要主张与目的上存在着千丝万缕的联系。它们都是英国人对殖民地看法转换的结果。可以说 ,间接统治制度是根据文化相对主义理论而发展演进出来的统治方式。     

自由主义与加拿大宪政改革

在19世纪上半期加拿大建立责任政府的过程中,自由主义观念起了重要的促进作用.这不仅表现在自由主义思想对加拿大殖民地人政治意识觉醒的推动上,更表现在英国社会与政坛对英帝国与移民殖民地关系认识的改变上.由于美国独立的教训,维护帝国统一和防止殖民地与母国分离,曾是英国人心中一个不解的结.因此,旧观念支配下的英国统治集团,几乎一致地拒绝了达勒姆关于授予殖民地责任政府的建议.随着英国自身现代政党制度的确立和自由贸易的实现,新的自由主义帝国观开始形成,并直接推动了加拿大的宪政改革.     

北美独立战争爆发原因初探

<正>一、殖民地早期概况从1606年到1733年,英国共在北美建立了十三块殖民地,这些殖民地大多是在取得英王的特许状之后在北美建立的。虽然形式上由英王统治,但是由于殖民地与英国远隔重洋,而当时的船舶航行仍以风力为主要动力,从欧洲大陆横穿大西洋到达美洲大陆一般都要在6周以上,一艘船一年之内最多航行两个航程(1),所以很多问题不得不依靠殖民地居民自行解决。而且,不同于大英帝国的其他殖民地,北美的这十三块殖民地的特殊性在于这里居民     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.