Investigating experimental knapping damage on an antler hammer: a pilot-study using high-resolution imaging and analytical techniques

Organic (bone, antler, wood) knapping tools were undoubtedly a component of early human tool kits since the Lower Palaeolithic. Previous studies have identified pitting and the occasional presence of embedded flint flakes as important features for recognizing archaeological bone and antler percussors. However, no systematic protocol of analysis has been suggested for the study of this rare archaeological material. Here we present qualitative and quantitative results of a preliminary analysis of an experimental knapping hammer, using a novel combination of microscopy (focus variation optical microscope and scanning electron microscope), micro-CT scanning and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. These imaging and analytical techniques are used to characterize use-damage from the manufacture of handaxes. This paper highlights the strengths and weakness of each technique. Use-wear on the working area included attritional bone loss, micro-striations and compaction of the outer layer of the antler matrix from repeated hitting of the beam against the sharp edge of the handaxe during knapping. Embedded flint flakes were also identified in the pits and grooves. This combination of high-resolution imaging techniques is applicable to fragile archaeological specimens, including those encrusted by sediment or encased in matrix.     

Diagnostic morphometric applicability of confocal laser scanning microscopy in Osteoarchaeology

The confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) has become an essential tool for a wide range of biological and clinical studies and imaging applications. The major imaging modes of the CLSM include single and serial optical sections from thick specimens (100 µm), multiple wavelength images and three‐dimensional reconstruction. Such images provide measurement of length, surface or volume of objects. Surprisingly, this advanced microscopic method has been very rarely used in anthropological research, although numerous clinical and basic science research projects showed its value to study, bone growth, bone micro‐architecture and 3D bone morphometry. We present the basic principles and advantages of CLSM and outline practical aspects of specimen preparation, image collection and digital image processing specifically appropriate for historical bone and hair material. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone preservation in human remains from the Terme del Sarno at Pompeii using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy

Archaeological bone can show marked and complex alterations depending on the environment in which it was buried. In this study, the state of preservation of 27 femurs recovered from the archaeological site of Pompeii was evaluated by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Most of the bone samples, prepared by the grinding method, showed good histological preservation, although they were characterized by microfissures (microcracking). Nine bone samples showed different states of histological preservation, including worst preservation (two femurs), due to diagenetic processes. Cryostat bone sections stained with thionin or 4′,6′-diamidino-phenylindole (DAPI) revealed the persistence of DNA within some osteocyte lacunae. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that ultrastructural characters, such as lamellae and collagen fibres, are recognizable only in unaltered bone. Our results reveal that most Pompeian samples are well preserved since they have a bone microstructure virtually indistinguishable from that of fresh bone. In methodological terms, although each of the various morphological methods used contributes information, histological and histochemical analyses are the most informative for studying the preservation state of bone and allow for rapid essential screening of archaeological bone.     

Immersive Visualization and Curation of Archaeological Heritage Data: Çatalhöyük and the Dig@IT App

Advanced data capture techniques, cost-effective data processing, and visualization technologies provide viable solutions for the documentation of archaeological heritage and material culture. Work at the UNESCO World Heritage site of Çatalhöyük has demonstrated that new digital approaches for capturing, processing, analyzing, and curating stratigraphic data in 3D are now feasible. Real-time visualization engines allow us to simulate the stratigraphy of a site, the three-dimensional surfaces of ancient buildings, as well as the ever-changing morphology of cultural landscapes. Nonetheless, more work needs to be done to address methodological questions such as follows: can three-dimensional models and stratigraphic relationships, based on 3D surfaces and volumes, be used to perform archaeological interpretation? How can a 3D virtual scenario become the interface to cultural data and metadata stored in external online databases? How can we foster a sense of presence and user embodiment in the simulation of ancient cities and archaeological sites? This article aims to provide viable solutions to the methodological challenge of designing a comprehensive digital archaeological workflow from the data acquisition and interpretation in the field to a three-dimensional digital data curation based on interactive visualization, searchable 3D data, and virtual environments. This work describes the results we achieved developing the application Dig@IT, a multi-platform, scalable virtual reality tool able to foster archaeological data analysis, interpretation, and curation in a realistic and highly interactive virtual environment.     

Microscopic examination of ground sections – a simple method for distinguishing between bone and antler?

Both bones and antlers have been used throughout history for manufacturing various products. Therefore, archaeologists often have to distinguish between these materials. The more the raw material (bone or antler) has been treated, the more complicated it is to distinguish. For this study, recent macerated and archaeological samples of bone and antler and their products have been compared. Antler is usually very easy to distinguish based on the characteristic surface structure; however, the original surface is not preserved in all artefacts. The inner surface of the diaphysis of long bones is mostly compact with prominent trabeculae and lamellae, whereas, after removal of the spongiosa, the inner surface of antler is characterised by numerous grooves. Sometimes, however, artefacts are found which are composed only of the compact bone substance, without inner and outer surfaces, and it is not possible to distinguish between bones and antlers macroscopically. Haversian systems can be found in histological and ground sections of both bones and antlers. In contrast to bones, antlers have few interstitial lamellae. The osteons of antler seem to be smaller and to consist of fewer layers than those of bone. Inner and outer circumferential lamellae cannot be distinguished in antlers. Although microscopic examination of sectioned samples does not allow distinction between bones and antlers in every case, it represents a valuable additional tool for distinguishing between these two materials in historic artefacts. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Element localization in archaeological bone using synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence: identification of biogenic uptake

Trace element analysis related to archaeological bone is viewed as one way to determine levels of element exposure in past populations. This area of research is complex because there is the potential for the incorporation of trace elements from the burial environment into archaeological bone. We tested the hypothesis that matching the spatial distribution of trace elements within cortical bone with the biological structures would provide evidence of biogenic uptake. We examined samples from a non-segregated Royal British Naval cemetery (1793–1822) in Antigua, West Indies. A key historical question related to this population was the extent of exposure to lead and the resulting health effects. Images from conventional light microscopy (histological) analysis of the bone samples were matched with elemental maps of calcium, strontium, and lead that were created through the use of synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF). Biogenic uptake of both strontium and lead was indicated based on the localization of these trace elements within discreet microstructural elements. The successful integration of histological information with XRF data is a powerful technique for the interpretation of past biological events through trace elements.     

Rapid loss of endogenous DNA in pig bone buried in five different environments

The rate at which endogenous DNA from differently prepared (butchered, boiled and baked) compact pig bones degrades in five different Danish terrestrial and marine environments over 12 months was investigated. Although > 70% of the estimated endogenous mtDNA is lost after just four weeks of exposure, no cytosine deamination of DNA was recognised. A correlation between the presence of oxygen and the amount of preserved DNA was observed. The results provide valuable information on the interaction between the endogenous DNA and the depositional environment in the early stages of bone diagenesis, which can be a support in the interpretation of the initial diagenetic pathways of archaeological bone.     

Biofilm growth in human skeletal material from ancient Mesopotamia

Investigators have long recognised the effects of microbial activity on archaeological bone. These investigators, however, have focused on single or groups of microbes rather than on complex microbial aggregates such as biofilms, a focus that has affected our understanding of archaeological bone biodeterioration. In this paper, we report on the investigation of a biofilm in archaeological human bone from the site of Tell Leilan, Syria (2900–1900 BCE). Scanning electron microscopy indicated that the biofilm is characterised by single cells and microcolonies of bacteria and fungi, as well as calcite crystals that were all embedded within extracellular polymeric substances. Using culture techniques and DNA sequencing, we isolated and identified several microbes from the biofilm including Amycolatopsis sp., Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus sp., Chaetomium sp., and Cladosporium sp. Having characterised the Leilan biofilm, we are now closer to understanding the complex process of bone biodeterioration in archaeological bone collections.     

High‐Resolution 3D Marine Seismic Investigation of Hedeby Harbour,Germany

Offshore 3D‐seismic acquisition has been a standard for high‐precision structural imaging in the oil and gas industry for many years. Recently this technique has been adapted by only a few teams to the resolution required for archaeological marine investigation. In contrast to sonar techniques, the 3D‐seismic method produces images below the sea‐floor. We investigate the harbour of the Viking age proto‐town of Hedeby in Northern Germany with the SEAMAP‐3D system. SEAMAP‐3D allows for rapid acquisition and employs an automated data processing sequence. We observe a wealth of archaeologically relevant detail and compare our results with previous work.     

Multi-image Photogrammetry for Underwater Archaeological Site Recording: An Accessible,Diver-Based Approach

This article presents a discussion of recent advances in underwater photogrammetric survey, illustrated by case studies in Scotland and Denmark between 2011 and 2013. Results from field trials are discussed with the aim of illustrating practical low-cost solutions for recording underwater archaeological sites in 3D using photogrammetry and using this data to offer enhanced recording, interpretation and analysis. We argue that the availability of integrated multi-image photogrammetry software, highly light-sensitive digital sensors and wide-aperture compact cameras, now allow for simple work flows with minimal equipment and excellent natural colour images even at depths of up to 30 m. This has changed the possibilities for underwater photogrammetric recording, which can now be done on a small scale, through the use of a single camera and automated work flow. The intention of this paper is to demonstrate the quality and versatility of the ‘one camera/ambient light/integrated software’ technique through the case studies presented and the results derived from this process. We also demonstrate how the 3D data generated can be subjected to surface analysis techniques to enhance detail and to generate data-driven fly-throughs and reconstructions, opening the door to new avenues of engagement with both specialists and the wider public.     

Integrated seismic tomography and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) for the high-resolution study of burial mounds (tumuli)

The study primarily aims at providing adequate imaging resolution of large and prominent targets of archaeological interest, such as pyramids and tumuli, at all depth levels. We implemented an integrated seismic tomography and georadar (STG) technique to perform high-resolution imaging and characterization of tumuli (burial mounds). We tested the proposed technique on a preserved late Bronze Age burial mound in northern Italy, for which STG succeeded in performing an accurate 3-D reconstruction of the structure and stratigraphy as proved by later archaeological excavations. We completed two transmission seismic tomography measurements, at present ground level and at 1.5 m elevation, with a 24-channel seismograph and 15° angular separation between geophones. The ground-penetrating radar (GPR) dataset encompasses 12 250 MHz radial profiles and 12 common mid point gathers for velocity analysis. Shallow layers of the mound are successfully imaged by GPR, whilst the structure of the deep central part of the tomb is reconstructed from seismic traveltime inversion. In particular, GPR images lenses and layers of sediments forming the external part of the tumulus, evidences of a looting attempt, peripheral structures associated with later exploitation of the mound (furnaces) and, in the external sector of the tumulus, the top of the deep layer of silty sediments covering the funeral chamber. Tomographic results reveal seismic velocity anomalies of potential archaeological interest at ground level, which were successively validated by archaeological excavations. The integration of GPR and tomographic datasets is an effective strategy to overcome the imaging and interpretation problems related to the structure of such peculiar funeral monuments. STG can be applied to a virtually unlimited dimensional range and requires a limited data acquisition, processing and inversion effort. The results of the study allowed the identification of the funeral chamber and a detailed imaging of layering and structural details.     

Breaking Bones to Obtain Marrow: A Comparative Study between Percussion by Batting Bone on an Anvil and Hammerstone Percussion

The fat‐ and nutrient‐rich marrow of animal bones can be extracted using different techniques. Passive hammerstone percussion has been the primary focus of experimental bone breaking and the main analogy to understand archaeological bone breakage. Here, the term ‘passive’ is applied because the bone to be broken passively receives the impact from a hammerstone. In addition to this technique, there is another bone‐breaking method that also requires direct percussion, but in an active way. This method is percussion by ‘batting’, in which the bone is actively hit against an anvil until the bone breaks. This technique has rarely been considered at an experimental level and, therefore, has been omitted in the majority of the archaeological interpretations of faunal assemblages with pre‐use of fire technologies. In this study, we attempt to analytically characterize this type of bone‐breaking technique through a systematic comparison with hammerstone percussion. The applied statistical tests will allow us to distinguish some diagnostic modifications, such as the outlines of the fracture planes and the type of notches or their location with respect to the longitudinal axis of the bone. These features and their proportions allow the consideration of the use of this technique in Pleistocene anthropogenic faunal assemblages.     

In situ preservation of archaeological bone: a histological study within a multidisciplinary approach

To make preservation in situ a serious option for the management of archaeological sites, research has to be done on the factors affecting conservation of different archaeological materials, including bone. A European project has been started which deals with bone degradation in a multidisciplinary way. The goals of the project are to develop techniques to describe the preservation of archaeological bone, to make a classification of soil environments according to their preservation potential and to detect what factors in the environment of the bone affect its conservation. One technique used in this project to determine the state of preservation of archaeological bone is histology. The relevance of this technique for archaeological heritage management research is discussed.     

Identifying domestic functional areas. Chemical analysis of floor sediments at the Classical-Hellenistic settlement at Düzen Tepe (SW Turkey)

For over a decade, multi-element chemical analysis of floor sediments in archaeological contexts has been a tool to identify and interpret anthropogenic chemical residues and activities. For the current study, a multi-element chemical analysis was applied to floor samples from a Classical-Hellenistic courtyard building at Düzen Tepe (SW Turkey). Among a series of 19 elements analyzed, K, Mg, Fe, P and Sr are thought to directly reflect anthropogenic chemical residues. The elements Cr, Mg, Ni, Pb and Ti are considered to reflect the geological background of the site, yet their contents seem to vary over different chemical residue zones, making them a suitable tool for delineating activity areas. Overall, the sampling and analysis techniques applied at Düzen Tepe – mild acid sample extraction and ICP-OES analysis – have proven to be fit for this kind of study. The analyses allow human activity zones within the study area to be identified and interpreted and deliver insights into the archaeological contexts that could not be obtained by archaeological research alone.     

Airborne LiDAR,archaeology, and the ancient Maya landscape at Caracol,Belize

Advances in remote sensing and space-based imaging have led to an increased understanding of past settlements and landscape use, but – until now – the images in tropical regions have not been detailed enough to provide datasets that permitted the computation of digital elevation models for heavily forested and hilly terrain. The application of airborne LiDAR (light detection and ranging) remote sensing provides a detailed raster image that mimics a 3-D view (technically, it is 2.5-D) of a 200 sq km area covering the settlement of Caracol, a long-term occupied (600 BC-A.D. 250–900) Maya archaeological site in Belize, literally “seeing” though gaps in the rainforest canopy. Penetrating the encompassing jungle, LiDAR-derived images accurately portray not only the topography of the landscape, but also, structures, causeways, and agricultural terraces – even those with relatively low relief of 5–30 cm. These data demonstrate the ability of the ancient Maya to modify, radically, their landscape in order to create a sustainable urban environment. Given the time and intensive effort involved in producing traditional large-scale maps, swath mapping LiDAR is a powerful cost-efficient tool to analyze past settlement and landscape modifications in tropical regions as it covers large study areas in a relatively short time. The use of LiDAR technology, as illustrated here, will ultimately replace traditional settlement mapping in tropical rainforest environments, such as the Maya region, although ground verification will continue to be necessary to test its efficacy.     

Burnishing Versus Smoothing in Ceramic Surface Finishing: A SEM Study

From the Neolithic up to the present, people have used various methods to improve the surface of ceramic objects. In this study, we look specifically at smoothing and pattern burnishing of ceramics produced today by traditional methods. Optical microscopy and SEM show specific surface changes. Smoothing results in an irregular surface, which causes diffused reflection of light. Burnishing produces an even and compact surface, which causes specular reflection and lustre. The results can be used to infer methods of surface treatment employed by ancient peoples as well as to help identify the presence of ceramics production centres at archaeological sites.     

Mesh Is More—Using All Geometric Dimensions for the Archaeological Analysis and Interpretative Mapping of 3D Surfaces

In various disciplines, particularly those that utilise techniques developed in the geosciences, the display, analysis and interpretation of three-dimensional (3D) data is very important. This is also the case in archaeology. Irrespective of a site- or landscape-centred point of focus, archaeology deals with very complex surfaces and always examines traces of past human presence in three geometrical dimensions. Visualising these detailed geometric environments is not that much of an issue anymore; however, interactively interpreting and mapping them is still problematic. Despite the steady increase in technologies to create 3D models, there is still a serious lack of tools that allow for easy interaction with these models in a metrical and coordinate system-aware environment. As a result, most—if not all—interpretation workflows will first downscale 3D data to two-and-a-half-dimensional (2.5D) or 2D data sets, thus effectively discarding up to one geometrical dimension. To enable or enhance the perception of topographic characteristics in these geometrically compromised datasets, various visualisation techniques have been developed to artificially restore and enhance the data that was initially discarded. While these techniques work very well to enhance the remaining pertinent features present in such data sets, data downscaling can nevertheless irrevocably eliminate significant amounts of important archaeological information. Therefore, this paper outlines a new processing and interpretation pipeline for complex archaeological 3D surfaces that do not rely on downscaling of data, while also discussing several 3D-related concepts and issues along the way. More specifically, this article focusses on the generation of intelligently decimated, two-manifold triangular meshes and the subsequent geo-referenced 3D interpretative mapping of these surfaces. Furthermore, all applications can be considered low- and even no-cost, making this a readily implemented processing and interpretation workflow. Additionally, all software packages are easy to learn and flexible enough for implementation in any existing mixed software pipeline.     

Maize and Bone: Residues of Grinding in Northwestern Argentina*

Archaeometric and archaeobotanical analyses of grinding residues inside an archaeological milling stone tool from the Cueva de los Corrales 1 site in northwestern Argentina are shown. Multiple analytical techniques are used to identify ground substances, and their results are compared and complemented. They give direct and reliable evidence of maize (Zea mays L.) and burned bone grinding in the pre‐hispanic Argentine north‐west, although the latter is little related to milling tasks.     

STRIKING THE BALANCE: THE ROLES OF PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY IN STONE AXE STUDIES IN IRELAND*

There has been a long but sporadic history of research on stone axes in Ireland, leading to the formation of the Irish Stone Axe Project (ISAP) in 1990. The purpose of this paper is to outline the research strategy of the project and to indicate the petrological techniques that are being applied in parallel with archaeological and archival studies to classify and identify potential sources for Irish stone axes. These include macroscopic studies, transmitted and reflected light microscopy on polished thin sections and X-ray fluorescence analyses. The results of the macroscopic examination of 15916 axes indicate that one rock type, porcellanite, was the dominant source, but that a wide range of other lithologies was also exploited. Several avenues for more detailed research are highlighted. A case study of gabbro axes demonstrates the value of this systematic approach to stone axe studies, and the results of this study suggest that some of these axes are petrographically consistent with British Group I, presumed to originate from sources in Cornwall, south-west England.     

ASSESSING WHAT LIES BENEATH THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF A ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD: THE USE OF GIS AND SPATIAL CORRELATIONS AT EL MIRÓN CAVE (SPAIN)*

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are being incorporated into archaeology as a technique to improve the understanding of spatial organization and the relationships among finds within specific areas. Although their use as a basic tool in predicting the location of archaeological sites or in assessing the extent of their catchment areas is relatively common, in general, they have less often been applied to the study of the spatial distribution of archaeological remains within individual deposits, and in particular to faunal assemblages. Despite this, they can prove essential to understanding dispersion and grouping patterns within deposits fully, and, together with various correlation analytical techniques, they provide valuable information about the economic organization of settlements and inhabitant lifeways. To demonstrate the potential of this methodology, a zooarchaeological GIS has been prepared for the Middle and Late Magdalenian and Azilian layers in El Mirón Cave (eastern Cantabria, Spain), and the spatial distribution patterns of various attributes of the archaeological record have been analysed. Significant conclusions in terms of type and duration of human occupation have been drawn.