The application of 3D‐microprofilometry as a tool in the surface diagnosis of fossil and sub‐fossil vertebrate hard tissue. An example from the Pliocene Upper Laetolil Beds,Tanzania

Non‐contact optical 3D‐profiling instruments are often used in the study of surface modifications on fossil mammalian bone. The advantage of optical laser scanning for the study of fossil and sub‐fossil bone is its non‐contact nature, allowing the investigation of fragile and poorly preserved surfaces. The high resolution and fast measuring rate of this method make it an alternative to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigation if topography is to be visualized. This study analyses clusters of incisions in a suid humeral fragment from the Pliocene Upper Laetolil Beds. The marks show a characteristic crest structure that is also frequently found in mandible marks produced by the Australian termite species Mastotermes darwiniensis. The marks from the Laetolil Beds are, therefore, interpreted as also being caused by insect mandible action. An as yet unknown large insect species capable of modifying bone with their mandibles is thus postulated in the palaeohabitat represented by the hominid‐bearing Upper Laetolil Beds. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When a ‘Waterhole’ Is Full of Dung: An Illustration of the Importance of Environmental Evidence for Refining Archaeological Interpretation of Excavated Features

Prehistoric field systems sometimes encompass excavated, pit‐like features which are difficult to classify due to the complex stratigraphies resulting from reuse, infilling and collapse. They are frequently classified as wells and watering holes, but other potential uses for excavated depressions are rarely cited. We argue the need for environmental archaeology in the interpretation of features of this nature, and present a case study from a Bronze Age site at Pode Hole, near Peterborough (UK), where fossil insect material clearly contradicts the archaeological interpretation. We present empirical evidence for a sealed context filled with dung which cannot be interpreted as a water source. This evidence strongly contrasts with other superficially similar features at the site.     

The application of numerical techniques to insect assemblages from the site of Stóraborg,Iceland

The problems of interpretation of many overlapping species lists of fossil assemblages are discussed using the example of insect faunas from a late medieval farm site in southern Iceland. Numerical techniques were employed, principally those available within the CLUSTAN package, and it was concluded that a considerable refinement in interpretation was achieved. Such quantitative procedures are suitable for groups other than fossil insects but their employment cannot be regarded as a substitute for, rather than an adjunct to, a sound ecological approach.     

Neosecoptera,a new insect suborder based on specimen discovered in the Late Carboniferous of Tasmania

Psychroptilus burrettae gen. et sp. nov., from the Late Carboniferous of Tasmania, combines characters of the insect orders Palaeodictyoptera and Megasecoptera. Psychroptilus is referred to the Megasecoptera because it lacks paratergal processes on the pronotum, and because its wing venation is simple, with reduced cross veins. However, its wings are not narrowed at their bases, but are as broad as those of the Palaeodictyoptera. It is placed in a new suborder of the Megasecoptera, the Neosecoptera. This suborder differs from the Suborders Eumegasecoptera and Protohymenoptera in having: 1, broad wings that are not narrowed at base; 2, the hind wing slightly broader than the fore wing; and 3, anal veins that all arise from close to the wing base. The insect is possibly the oldest recorded in the southern hemisphere although age determinations of this and the only other known probable Late Carboniferous species, Hadentomoides dwykensis Riek, are not precise. The inclusion of the insect fossil in varve-like sediments and the very few associated fossil species, are indicative of a very cold habitat either at or adjacent to the area producing the sediments. The great majority of insect fossils are associated with abundant plant remains or other fossils indicative of warm conditions in the area of sedimentation. None is recorded from an area apparently as cold as that under which Psychroptilus burrettae was preserved.     

Insect and clitellate annelid traces in mesofossil assemblages from the Cretaceous of Australasia

Mesofossil assemblages from several Cretaceous and Cenozoic units across Australia and New Zealand provide new evidence of insect and annelid behaviour. The earliest scale insects (Diaspididae, Coccoidea) from Australasia are described and represented by three scale morphotypes. The mesofossil assemblages also reveal clitellate annelid cocoon morphotypes, three morphotypes of arthropod coprolites and several insect piercement structures on gymnosperm leaf or stem fragments, possibly related to feeding or more likely oviposition. This research offers a new avenue for detecting cryptic terrestrial invertebrate groups and their interactions, particularly with plants, in the fossil record. The fossils demonstrate that insect/invertebrate activity can be preserved and identified in mesofossil suites, that such traces and exoskeleton fragments are relatively common in acid-extracted mesofossil suites, and that recognizable categories occur on multiple landmasses and at various ages.     

Insect faunas associated with the Fossil remains of Pinus sylvestris L. in blanket peat from Northeast Scotland

Pine stumps have been found preserved in blanket peats at altitudes of up to 793 m OD in Scotland. Radiocarbon dating by other researchers has demonstrated that these sites were not all contemporary, but most fall within the mid‐Holocene period. Palynological, dendrochronological and stable isotope analyses have previously been carried out on these fossil pine stumps, but not palaeoentomological analysis. This paper reports on the results of an analysis of the fossil beetle remains from two of these sites in the Cairngorms, Monaltrie Moss and a moss on the Mar Lodge estate. The insect faunas indicate that acidic wetland was colonised by pine trees, which developed into mature woodland. The dominance of saproxylic (deadwood) faunas in comparison to those associated with healthier trees suggests that the woodland was always under stress. The pine fauna at Mar Lodge was replaced by montane wetland species once the pine trees died out.     

A Micro Computerized Tomography (X-RAY MICROSCOPY) of the Hand Phalanx of the Denisova Girl*

In 2010, the complete mitochondrial genome of a fossil hominin from Denisova Cave, Altai was sequenced on the basis of mtDNA extracted from the hand phalanx of a girl. Modern micro tomographic techniques mark a new stage in the morphological study of extant and fossil hominins, offering opportunities to work with fragmentary material. We have used the nondestructive method of micro computerized tomography for a comparative histological assessment of the Denisova girl's biological age. The diaphyseal and metaphyseal parts of the phalanx, reflecting different ontogenetic stages, were undergoing rapid growth. The histological pattern of the walls of the diaphysis, specifically the lamellar structure with rare osteons, indicates a stage corresponding to 6–7 years in modern children. An altogether different pattern, resembling that of adults, was earlier observed in a Neanderthal child from Okladnikov Cave, Altai. The resemblance between the Denisova individual and extant humans in certain features of growth and skeletal maturation may point to the very early origin of the modern skeletal growth pattern. The Neanderthal pattern is quite distinct and may have originated after these hominins had branched off from the common stem.     

URANIUM-SERIES DATING OF FOSSIL BONES FROM ALPINE CAVES

During the course of an investigation of fossil cave bear populations the uranium-series method for absolute age determination has been applied to bone material. The applicability of the method to bone samples from alpine caves could be demonstrated by the concordance of U/Th and U/Pa ages and cross-checks with the radiocarbon method. Stratigraphic agreement between bone ages and carbonate speleothetn ages also indicates the potential of the uranium-series method as a suitable tool for the age determination of fossil bones from alpine cave environments.     

Dancing to the Rhythms of the Fossil Fuel Landscape: Landscape Inertia and the Temporal Limits to Market‐Based Climate Policy

This article makes a contribution to the critique of market‐based mechanisms for climate and energy policy. It explores the environmental effectiveness of market instruments by engaging a broadly conceived “fossil fuel landscape”, or the material, social, and political inertia of fossil energy dependence, as a factor delimiting policy outcomes. The argument is developed through a focus on the idea of economic efficiency as a key ideological construct underlying market‐based policy, and draws on examples from two different market instruments, namely the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, and the Flemish tradable green certificate scheme. I argue that an understanding of the shortcomings of these, and similar, policies requires acknowledgment of the political and socio‐economic power that emanates from the temporal dynamics of fossil fuel capitalism, which are reproduced when economic efficiency becomes the key focus of climate policy.     

A proof of concept demonstration of the automated laser removal of rock from a fossil using 3D X-ray tomography data

Laser removal of rock from around a fossil using 3D data was demonstrated was the first time. This proof of concept combines the power of two technologies: X-ray micro-computed tomography scanning and programmable scanning laser ablation. This simple demonstration holds promise for the semi-automated and entirely safe laser removal of bulk material from around precious fossils.     

Tracing the source of Late Neolithic Spondylus shell ornaments by stable isotope geochemistry and cathodoluminescence microscopy

Determination of the source of Spondylus objects is essential for the interpretation of Late Neolithic exchange systems and the social role of shell ornaments. We performed stable isotope analysis combined with cathodoluminescence microscopy study on ornaments (beads, bracelets) made of Spondylus shells excavated at the Aszód-Papi földek archaeological site in Hungary, to define their origin. For comparison Spondylus finds from Neolithic sites of Greece, modern Spondylus shells from the Aegean and the Adriatic, as well as fossil Spondylus and Ostrea shells from the Carpathian Basin were also examined. Oxygen isotope composition of Spondylus finds from Aszód ranges between ?1.9 and 2.1‰ and overlaps with the oxygen isotope range of shell objects from other Neolithic sites. Modern Spondylus shells from the Aegean and the Adriatic show overlapping δ¹⁸O values with one another and with the Neolithic objects; while recent shells of the Black Sea clearly are separate isotopically from the Mediterranean ones and most of archaeological artefacts. Spondylus shells from the Aszód site have Mediterranean origin; their source can be the Aegean or the Adriatic. Based on a former strontium isotope study the use of fossil Spondylus shells is excluded as raw material used for ornaments, however, in recent years the use of fossil shells was reintroduced. The shell ornaments from Aszód-Papi földek and the fossil oyster shells collected from the Carpathian Basin exhibit some overlapping oxygen isotope values; however, cathodoluminescence microscopy indicates that the Spondylus objects retained their original aragonite material. Diagenetic calcite, which occurs typically in the fossil shells, was not detected in the ornaments suggesting that the studied objects were made of recent shells. Calcitic parts observed in some Spondylus objects are not related to fossilisation.     

Pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs in organic residue from the hoard of ancient Vani (western Georgia)

An investigation of pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs in the organic material in bronze objects found in Vani provides evidence that, in the first half of the first century BC, the climate of the area was cooler and much more humid than nowadays. The local population was engaged in cattle-breeding and agriculture, and both viticulture and horticulture were also well developed. The analysis of the contents of an oil lamp showed that the lamp was in use for a long time and was filled with flax oil. Large pieces of beeswax found in the hoard provide evidence of the existence of local bronze-casting industry. The palynological studies of the recent and fossil soil of Vani have shown that only in soil spectra large quantities of spores of various fungi were found, which distinguishes them from the domestic dust spectra. On the basis of this argument it was established that most part of the studied fossil material is not contaminated by the soil where the hoard of bronze objects was buried.     

Computed tomography in paleoanthropology — an overview

Computed tomography (CT) was first applied in the early 1970s and introduced subsequently a new perspective towards anatomical imaging. In the last decade, high-resolution CT (HR-CT) had a high impact on anthropology and paleoanthropology through its ability to define and explore subtle differences in hard tissue structures in fossil and extant humans and nonhuman primates. CT is very suitable for unique fossil material, because it is destruction free and the original material stays intact while the internal structures are digitized. The imaging yields a virtual copy of the object, which can be used for the generation of detailed copies of original fossil material. CT data allow multiple studies in parallel and independently on specimens which are not commonly accessible. Diverse CT systems with different performance characteristics as designed for different functions can make it difficult for a researcher to choose the most appropriate CT system and to check the image quality of CT scans. The physical principles involved in CT imaging and the principles of signal processing and computer graphics can help to choose the best scan setting and the most suitable CT system for a study. Quantitative and qualitative analysis can also be improved and comparisons between different studies can be facilitated when the above mentioned principles are taken into account. In the following, I will give an overview of the different CT systems and discus both theoretical and practical matters of CT imaging using the example of trabecular bone.     

On the elimination of extraneous DNA in fossil human teeth with hypochlorite

Elimination of extraneous DNA in fossil specimens is of paramount importance for the successful isolation and analysis of authentic DNA; this is especially true when the specimens are of human origin. Bones and teeth are commonly decontaminated with bleach containing the powerful oxidising hypochlorite ion. The procedures involve either submersion in or wiping with the chlorine agent. Using the radioactive isotope Cl³⁶ we showed that submersion of fossil teeth in solutions of small ions such as Cl⁻ or hypochlorite, ClO⁻, cause that they migrate right into the pulp. This may lead to the unwanted destruction of authentic DNA. However, using pairs of teeth from the remains of four ancient Europeans (1000–2000 YBP) as well as tooth and hair from an Inuit skull (>300 YBP) we provide evidence that at least some endogenous human fossil DNA survives in powdered pulp/dentin that has been submersed in 2% hypochlorite. Further, we show that powdered pulp/dentin deliberately contaminated with huge amounts of a 414 bp PCR product is effectively decontaminated by suspension in 2% hypochlorite for 5 min. Decontamination of fossil material from teeth may therefore be accomplished by a short direct action of hypochlorite on the powdered specimen rather than less controllable and less efficient external treatments of the whole specimen.     

Palaeoecology and palaeoenvironment of the Jurassic Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed,Gulgong, New South Wales,Australia

BEATTIE, R.G. & AVERY, S., December 2012. Palaeoecology and palaeoenvironment of the Jurassic Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed, Gulgong, New South Wales, Australia. Alcheringa 36, 451–465. ISSN 0311-5518.

The Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed has produced a significant number and variety of insect fossils, including the orders Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Plecoptera, Odonata, Neuroptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Mecoptera. Hemiptera are the most common insects. Coleoptera are both common and diverse. Both orders include terrestrial and aquatic species. The other insect orders represented are less common. Many of the insect fossils discovered were previously unknown in the Australian region during the Jurassic, and the new records extend their palaeogeographic range into southeastern Gondwana. A recent collection of insects, fish, coprolites, gastropods, bivalves, bark, leaves, fruiting bodies, burrows and other ichnofossils supports a model of a shallow-water-lake palaeoenvironment at the northern end of the deposit, grading to a shoreline palaeoenvironment towards the southern end of the deposit. The existence of a productive lake supporting a large population of fish and a diverse, aquatic/shoreline and terrestrial woodland fringe palaeoecosystem, dominated by insects and woody plants, is demonstrated. There is no evidence of tetrapods. The Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed has similarities to Type A and B Mesozoic lake deposits reported from Transbaikalia. Culicimorph pupae are numerous and may have filled a significant niche near the base of the aquatic palaeoecosystem. Other immature aquatic insects are rare. The generally articulated nature of the fossil insects is interpreted to have resulted from a sudden but low-energy burial event.     

Repairs to an injured early Middle Cambrian Trilobite,Elkedra area,Northern Territory

Wang, Y., Shih, C., Szwedo, J. &; Ren, D. iFirst article. New fossil palaeontinids (Hemiptera, Cicadomorpha, Palaeontinidae) from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, China. Alcheringa, 1–12. ISSN 0311-5518.

A new genus and species assigned to the extinct family Palaeontinidae, Synapocossus sciacchitanoae Wang, Shih &; Ren, is described from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou in Inner Mongolia, China. This new genus is established based on well-preserved fossil specimens with body and complete forewings and hind wings. It differs from other described genera by the following characters: small body size, RP and M₁ coalescing for an interval on the forewings and M_3 + 4 without bifurcation on the hind wings. The RP coalescence with M₁ in Synapocossus Wang, Shih &; Ren previously reported only in Turgaiella Becker-Migdisova &; Wootton, seems to be associated with strengthening of the anterior wing margin. The intra-specific and individual variations of Synapocossus and numerous other insect fossils of northeastern China probably indicate long-lasting ecological stresses and a competitive environment in the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous ecosystems.     

Assessing the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites: a predictive model of collagen degradation

In order to assess the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites and hominin remains, we need an understanding of the factors that may affect the preservation of archaeological material in the fossil record. One of the main factors that is thought to affect seriously the global distribution of fossil remains is taphonomy, but it would seem that taphonomic processes may themselves be overprinted by collagen degradation.The rate of collagen loss is highly temperature dependent, and it has been shown that bone is more likely to be preserved in areas of lower temperature and so lower collagen loss. Hence, it would be expected that fossil fauna remains would be distributed in areas of low collagen loss, i.e. low temperature. Conversely, lithics will not be subject to a temperature bias in their preservation. We have tested this hypothesis through the use of archaeological material.Our results show that the distributions of both lithic and faunal assemblages are non-random across the African continent, with all archaeological sites being found in areas of relatively low collagen degradation. This implies that bone collagen degradation is not the only factor affecting the distribution of African Palaeolithic sites and hominin remains. We suggest that the site distribution is not a reflection of bias in excavation history, but is a real phenomenon reflecting hominin habitat choice.     

Roman amber identified as Siegburgite

A small amber fragment from the period of Roman occupation of Numantia (Garray, Spain) was characterised by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy and optical microscopy. The material was found to be a polystyrene-like material, which is a very rare fossil resin known as Siegburgite or class III amber. Until now, this material was found in Europe only at two sites, both localised in Germany, and it is the first time that this type of amber was identified in wrought archaeological artefacts. The discussion includes the applicability of the method to distinguish false from true and amber of different origins, its use and trading as well as a hypothesis for a transport route. The study highlights the need for a more systematic study of archaeological amber remains. The finding also proves the exploitation and trading of local, non-Baltic amber deposits throughout the Roman Empire.     

Avian taphonomy: observations at two Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) breeding colonies and their implications for the fossil record

Actualistic studies on vertebrate taphonomy have centred on mammals, and to a much lesser extent on flying birds. Members of the Spheniscidae are anatomically specialized making it problematic to make direct inferences from previous taphonomic work. Modern bone assemblages from two Spheniscus magellanicus breeding colonies on the southern Atlantic coast of continental Patagonia, Argentina, were surveyed on foot along linear transects, and features were determined that are useful in interpreting the fossil record. Present day bone accumulations have specific properties resulting from penguin anatomy and osteology as well as from the composition of the vertebrate community and regional environmental conditions. Most salient are the high spatial density of bones, the dominance of Spheniscidae remains over those of other vertebrates, the high percentage of disarticulated bones, the predominance of limb bones, the low frequencies of carnivore bone modifications, and the abundance of fractured bones. Many of these features observed in the modern assemblages can be identified in fossil avian bone deposits.