Sir Fred Hoyle,FRS (1915–2001)

Abstract

Forty years after it was first mooted, the idea that the biosphere acts on the global environment has become part of the conventional wisdom. But much more work remains to test details of the still controversial Gaia hypothesis, that this action regulates conditions on Earth in ways which suit the maintenance of life.     

Editorial Introduction

Abstract

International response to the problem of looting of archaeological sites has been hampered by the difficulty of quantifying the damage done. The scarcity of reliable information negatively impacts professional and public policy making, rendering consensus about the scale of the problem and the effectiveness of policy responses difficult to achieve. We report here on the use of publicly-available satellite imagery for quantifying the damage caused by looting of archaeological sites in Jordan. The ease of use and affordability of imagery such as that provided by Google Earth make the identification, quantification, and monitoring of archaeological site looting possible at a level previously unimagined. Our findings about looting at archaeological sites in Jordan shed light on the potential for a broader application of the method.     

Mutually assured pathogenicity

Abstract

Expenditure in the United State for research and development reached approximately $41 000 million in 1977. Executive agencies of the Federal Government fund over half of this figure. The Congress is charged by the constitution to oversee the executive branch of the American political system. The pervasive impact of science and technology on the economy quality of life and international relations, as well as the magnitude, complexity and sophistication of science and technology, present a major challenge to management, evaluation and oversight. The General Accounting Office - an independent, nonpolitical organization charged with assisting the US Congress in carrying out its oversight responsibilities - has expanded and diversified its capabilities to meet this challenge.

In this review the nature of the US science and technology enterprise is described with emphasis on the role of the Federal Government. Against this background, the work of the General Accounting Office and how it as I ts the Congress in its oversight is outlined and illustrated by example.

These include a satellite system for remote sensing of Earth resources, a fast breeder nuclear reactor program and computer-aided manufacturing technology. In conclusion, some of the difficulties involved in evaluating research and technology innovation are mentioned, and some current major issues involving science and technology are identified.     

The environment as a life support system: the case of Biosphere 2

This paper studies an attempt to replicate the Earth’s biosphere in the second half of the twentieth century with the aim of preserving and refashioning the environment as a self‐reproducing ecological system. Ecosystems dynamics framed the planet Earth as a closed system and directed scientific attention to questions of global environmental management. The image of the Earth as a spacecraft and operable in a similar way supported ideas of placing the environment in a laboratory setting. Using the case of Biosphere 2, launched in the Arizona desert in 1983, this paper studies the images of nature and environment contained in this quest to create an ecosystem and human habitat as good as, or superior to nature on Earth (known in this context as Biosphere 1). The second biosphere was designed as ‘a prototype for a space colony’ that would eventually enable its deteriorating predecessor, the Earthly biosphere, to reproduce and allow human settler societies to migrate to other planets. The paper draws on the cultural history of the ship in Western culture and on ships and spaceships as archetypes of autarkic enclosures set apart from nature. It argues that Biosphere 2 as an example of a technologically controlled endosphere advanced an understanding of the environment as a ‘life support system’ that emphasized not completeness but systems integrity, and was based on principles of functionality and replaceability. The paper will explore how notions of biospheric life support shaped demands on the natural and social environments in Biosphere 2 and Biosphere 1.     

Scientists and the media: the struggle for legitimacy in climate change and conservation science

Abstract

Despite the uncertainties associated with forecasts of the possible negative effects of climate change on natural environments, such research is often widely reported in the news media. Here we review the presentation in the UK news media and on the internet of an academic study published in Nature, forecasting future global extinctions as a result of climate change. The results and conclusions of the study were widely misrepresented, especially in the news media, to make the consequences seem more catastrophic and the timescale shorter. Representations of the original article on the internet were more variable, with several sites ranked highly on popular search engines being overtly critical of the underlying science. We suggest that such polarised representations of environmental science are indicative of a 'struggle for legitimacy' between environmentalist and anti-environmentalist groups, with potential negative consequences for public trust in science.     

Scientific Progress Doubts and Hopes

Abstract

Our scientific and technological world must be accepted, whatever the reservations guarding above all the preservation of a genuinely humane existence on this Earth. The most difficult problem facing humanity is the present population explosion which appears at present insoluble, as humanity shows itself unequal to this challenge. Equally daunting is the prospect of nuclear war, and only if we can make reason and responsibility the yardsticks of our actions, is there any hope.     

Knowledge is our Destiny

Abstract

Tracing the development of the human spirit from empiricism to science, the desire to know more about science is discussed and considered to be due to two main springs, curiosity and practical utility. This has led directly to two revolutions, the Industrial Revolution and the Information Revolution. Next, the interaction of science, engineering and technology is proclaimed and 'the virtuous circle' drawn to illustrate this interaction, linked to the funding of its three components. As knowledge is power, those who possess it, the scientists and technologists, have the duty to make the societies in which they live more aware of the powers and limitations of science.     

Precious Metals and Living Organisms

Abstract

In principle, the biosphere contains the essential minerals necessary for growth, survival and multiplication of the diverse spectra of living organisms, as well as all of the remaining naturally occurring elements of the Periodic Table. Here we emphasize the concept of selective element accumulation characteristically displayed by individual species from all of the major taxonomic groups. In particular, we describe the range of organisms and tissues known to contain relatively large concentrations of precious metals, including gold, silver, platinum and iridium. These accumulator species may indeed be detected in various natural habitats as well as on contaminated and polluted sites. Specific examples, drawn from a variety of life science disciplines, are presented to illustrate the possible involvement of organisms in precious metal cycling and biogeochemical deposition over geologic time. The prospects for metal recovery from fresh and ocean water utilizing specific organisms is also assessed. The metabolism of precious-metal-containing drugs is outlined with reference to the mechanisms of action of compounds at the cellular level that give these compounds considerable potential in therapeutic applications. It is concluded that the accumulation of precious metals by organisms is little understood and merits further research.     

Adhesion An Interdisciplinary Science

Abstract

The interdisciplinary science of adhesion is built upon contributions from the classical branches of science: chemistry, physics and mathematics, and some of their more specialized subdivisions such as polymer chemistry, surface chemistry, rheology and continuum mechanics. An historical review of the development of adhesive technology stresses the role of polymer chemistry in the advances made in modern adhesion technology, but many other disciplines have contributed. Their roles are discussed from the point of view of adhesion theories that are biased toward one discipline or another. Such bias can lead to fallacy. Challenging adhesion problems still exist and their solution will involve other disciplines, like biology and medicine.     

Science,sustainability and the establishment in a technological age

Abstract

Sustainable development, balancing economic and social development with environmental protection, has become a modern paradigm in our technological age. The British government, amongst others, regards science as being important in underpinning the move towards sustainability. However, many of the principles that bolster the three pillars of sustainable development – 'people, prosperity and planet' – are often viewed as being unscientific by sceptical natural and social scientists. But these principles are no different from the rules of thumb that engineers typically employ to design technological systems. The links between science, technology and the need to achieve environmental sustainability are explored here mainly in the context of the energy sector, which accounts for ninety-five per cent of carbon dioxide emissions in the UK. It is argued that the UK national academies of science and engineering tend to provide policy advice to government that favours 'advanced' technologies. They advocate support for such technologies often without regard for the results of science based integrated appraisal methods or for the need to engage in wider stakeholder dialogue. Greater attention is paid to 'hardware' than to, for example, energy efficiency or resource productivity more generally. The national academies could instead place themselves at the forefront of moves towards sustainability, by locating themselves more firmly in the vanguard of those devising a sustainability assessment framework.     

Modelling Resource Values and Climate Change Impacts to Set Preservation and Research Priorities

ABSTRACT

Climate change impacts will increase in their frequency and severity in the coming decades, resulting in compromised integrity or destruction of thousands of heritage resources. Efforts are needed to identify, record, and study resources that will be affected. To set research and preservation priorities, the vulnerability of resources to climate change impacts and their importance to scientific research, preservation, and other resource values needs to be understood. We advocate a modelling approach which predicts the location, timing, and severity of climate change impacts; identifies resources at risk, their resource values, and opportunity costs; and prioritises research and preservation options based on these assessments. The need for this approach is illustrated with examples from two coastal areas subject to different impacts and hosting different types of heritage resources: the Atlantic coast of Georgia in the United States and the Wismar Bight along the Baltic Sea in northern Germany.     

Editorial: The Nordic World Heritage Foundation

Abstract

This article identifies the current state of knowledge in the literature regarding the possible impacts of future climatic change on archaeological sites and ensembles. Drawing on the literature review a matrix of potential impacts is collated to provide a simplified overview. This theoretical ‘menu’ is then tested by applying it to a vulnerability assessment of the World Heritage site of Skellig Michael in Ireland. The case study results reveal some knowledge gaps, particularly in regard to the impacts of climate change on buried archaeological remains.     

Cosmology,creation, and the force of history

Abstract

At first sight, any attempt to understand the cosmos may seem overambitious. Cosmologists would claim, nonetheless, to have transformed their subject into a genuine empirical science, especially in the last three decades. This progress has proved possible because the universe possesses a surprising degree of overall symmetry and uniformity. It is complexity, and not sheer size, that makes a phenomenon baffling. In the fierce heat of a star and (even more surely) in the early universe, everything is broken down into its simplest constituents. So cosmology need not be the most intractable science. Our biological colleagues – studying the intricate multilayered structures of trees, butterflies, and brains – face challenges that may be even tougher.     

Micro-level assessment of regional and local disaster impacts in tourist destinations

ABSTRACT

The tourism sector faces severe challenges due to the economic impacts from changing natural environments as seen with the increased frequency of natural disasters. Therefore, analyses of disaster impacts models are necessary for managing successful tourism recovery. Typically, disaster assessments are conducted on a countrywide level, which can lead to imbalanced recovery processes, and a distorted distribution of recovery financing or subsidies. We address the challenges of recovery using the tourism disaster management framework by Faulkner. To calculate precise damage assessments, we develop a micro-level assessment model to analyze and understand disaster impacts at the micro-level supporting tourism recovery in an affected destination. We examine economic consequences of a disaster at a small regional scale arguing recovery from a natural disaster is more difficult in individual areas because of differences in geographic location or infrastructure development. The island of Dominica is chosen as an example for the model using statistical data from the tourism sector to outline and detail the consequences of a disaster specifically for communities. The results highlight the importance of damage assessments on a small-scale level, such as communities in order to distinguish between individual regions facing severe changes for resident livelihoods and the local tourism sector. We argue that only after identifying regional impacts it is possible to apply adequate governmental subsidies and development strategies for a country's tourism sector and residents in a continuously changing environment in the hopes of mitigating future financial losses and future climate change impacts.     

Seeds: Contracting the Audience in a Play about Science

Abstract

In pursuing the question ‘what can scientists learn from theatre?’ Particularly, ‘what can scientists, as scientists, learn from theatre?’ this paper argues that science lacks a normative framework that theatre is capable of providing. Despite science’s well-earned epistemic reputation, there is adequate reason to question its ethical reputation, particularly at the point where cutting edge scientific technology impacts society. I consider science as operating in four categories: the scientific method; the scientific hypothesis; the scientific experiment; and the scientist’s personal character. The realms of the scientist’s hypothesis and personal character are those where social pressures are reciprocally exerted, where imaginative play mentality and epistemic values are most in evidence. Theatre can examine these realms effectively because it is able to use narratives that appeal not only to logical and social moral judgements but to emotional and visceral responses, so as to situate science in the social context in which the pressures of law, funding, experimentation, society, and personal ambition converge in ‘the game of life’.

This can be seen in the theatrical process known as ‘contracting with the audience’. I point out a spectrum of traditional narrative tropes by which science makes “contracts with” audiences. The paper draws on theories of entrainment and theatrical game-play from Peter Stromberg and Philippe Gaulier, as well as my own practice and research into the process of contracting with the audience, to propose how to reach beyond tradition and to shift normalising contracts “outside the box”. To illustrate my proposition, I examine the play Seeds by Annabel Soutar as directed by Chris Abraham for Crow’s Theatre and Theatre Porte Parole. Seeds follows the controversial court battles of Saskatchewan farmer Percy Schmeiser against agricultural-biotech corporation Monsanto, which sued him for patent infringement of its Genetically Modified Organism Roundup Ready Canola. Seeds helps its audience define a public arena for discourse even as it brings to our attention the factors that make this difficult to do, while making an excellent contribution to the genre of ‘Documentary Theatre’. It is a successful contract with the audience that creates a public forum for discussion about contemporary ethical debates in science, thereby merging artistic ambiguity and scientific theory.     

Spinoza on art and the cultivation of a disposition toward joyful living

ABSTRACT

This paper forms part of a larger project which seeks to derive a theory of art from a close reading of Spinoza's work. It focuses on the importance of the aligned terms of ingenium and dispositio, which are both used to discuss the central importance of “dispostion” to our capacity to live well. While it is not possible to avoid affects, it is possible to order them in such a way that their negative impacts are lessened and their positive impacts are enhanced. We begin by underlining the importance of disposition to opening the way to understanding. We connect this to Spinoza's acknowledgement of the importance of art in helping to provide a plan for living. We turn to readings of ingenium in the work of Moreau and Balibar to further explore how the concept of disposition helps us to recognise the capacities of works of art to affect their audiences.     

The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: 1

Abstract

Desert landscapes are the least understood among terrain types of the Earth. The dearth of basic information on arid landforms has resulted in the misconception that the desert is man-made and that, therefore, we can 'fix it'. Scientific evidence indicates that deserts are part of the natural features of both Earth and Mars. They form as a result of the lack or scarcity of rain, which may be cyclical. The basic layout of today's arid terrain appears to have formed during humid periods in the geological past. Understanding of such features and those caused by wind erosion and deposition is essential to the development of deserts and semiarid lands for the benefit of mankind. Images obtained by spacecraft provide a new tool that is very useful in this regard, particularly in the location of groundwater resources to be used at times of cyclical droughts.     

The Solar Power Satellite – Progress So Far

Abstract

Energy supply and demand issues are explored and a rationale is presented for increasing reliance on the inexhaustible energy radiated by the Sun. The potential of solar energy to meet global energy needs is surveyed and the objectives for solar energy conversion in space for use on Earth are given. The concept of the solar power satellite, SPS, is introduced, and its advantages for the generation of continuous power compared with terrestrial solar energy conversion methods, are discussed. The technology options for converting solar energy in space, transmitting power, and converting it on Earth into electricity, are summarized. The requirements for space transportation systems, orbital assembly and maintenance are reviewed. The economic, environmental and societal issues inherent in the development and future implementation of the SPS concept, are highlighted. Possible organizational structures which would permit international participation in an SPS program, are presented. The conclusion is drawn that assessment of the technical, economic, environmental, and societal issues has not identified a single constraint which would preclude continuation of the SPS R+D program. This program could lead to a future decision to implement this major option for power generation on Earth. Comments on the National Research Council's report on the SPS are included.     

ACCESSING PAST BELIEFS AND PRACTICES: THE CASE OF LEMNIAN EARTH*

Lemnian Earth, a medicine in the shape of a stamped clay tablet (sphragis) from Lemnos, northeastern Greece, was much valued in antiquity and in the post‐medieval period as an antidote to poison and a treatment for other ailments. Although it was among the first archaeological materials to be subjected to chemical analysis (in 1807), there is still no clear understanding as to what made Lemnian Earth an effective medicine. We argue that Lemnian Earth, the artefact, was not the same as Lemnian Earth, the raw material. We suggest a composition for the artefact by scrutinizing the documentary evidence for its properties and by considering the geochemical processes that led to the formation of the raw material and the ritual relating to its extraction. The study of the latter highlights the need for archaeological materials scientists to recognize ritual as a possible manifestation of physical and chemical processes carried out within the framework of past beliefs and practices.     

Country stories: the use of oral histories of the countryside to challenge the sciences of the past and future

Abstract

In the context of recent media, governmental, academic and popular attention and enthusiasm for debates surrounding the construction and meaning of the British countryside, this paper outlines the potential for oral history to make a contribution. Drawing on work in Devon, UK, we outline how an oral history methodology can engage with the fields of archaeological science and heritage management of landscape resources from the past, before outlining how such lay narratives may also inform present policies for the landscapes of the future. On the one hand we note the potential of oral histories for animating existing scientific narratives of landscape development. Moving from a position of scientific complicity towards one of critical engagement, we then go on to argue that oral histories may also challenge the authority of scientific knowledge, serving to destabilise existing assumptions, and offering in their stead more complex, meaningful and community-led narratives of landscape.