丧葬习俗的地理学研究——以西藏天葬为例

丧葬形式既是社会文化观念的反应,也是一定自然环境作用的产物。我国主要有5种丧葬形式-土葬、火葬、塔葬、水葬和天葬,大部分民族采用火葬的形式。藏族作为我国民族大家庭重要的一员,在丧葬习俗上与其他民族有着很大的不同,90%以上的藏族同胞接受天葬。独特的自然地理环境﹑深刻的历史和社会文化背景﹑神奇的经学传说是天葬在西藏盛行的主要原因。由于天葬节约土地,净化环境,保护资源,在促进社会文明方面有特殊意义,应予以理解和尊重。     

Agricultural Research Policy

Abstract

From Galileo's measurement of time by musical beats at about half-second intervals to modern atomic clocks, progressively more accurate instruments have been developed and are here reviewed. Both the mechanical and the pendulum clock were major advances and led to theories of a clocklike universe in the 17th century. Barrow, Newton and Leibniz treated time as mathematical concepts and in the 19th century time as a linear advancement became accepted as evolutionary biology extended the vision of time to millions of years. In modern physics, Einstein's special relativity introduced 'time dilation', an idea somewhat contrary to our common sense intuition but now supported by abundant empirical evidence.     

Caspar Vopel's Ventures in Sixteenth-Century Celestial Cartography

ABSTRACT

This paper concerns the undertakings in celestial cartography of the sixteenth-century Cologne cartographer Caspar Vopel. Copies of his printed celestial globe and of the celestial maps included on his world map are also described. Vopel's celestial mappings display his extraordinary interest in astronomical myths through a series of conspicuous iconographic features. In particular, Vopel's introduction of the images of Antinous and Coma Berenices is revealed to have been inspired by a humanist edition of the Ptolemaic star catalogue. Finally, a study of the celestial maps on the copies of Vopel's world map by Valvassore (1558) and by Van den Putte (1570) shows that these represent different editions of Vopel's world map and that the celestial maps on the world map of Matteo Pagano were in turn copied from those on the world map of Valvassore.     

Strengths and weaknesses of accessibility instruments in planning practice: technological rules based on experiential workshops

Accessibility instruments can play a valuable role in urban planning practice by providing a practical framework for exploring and testing relationships between land use and transport infrastructure. Despite many available accessibility instruments, they are still not widely used in planning practice. This paper explores the background of this problem by examining the findings of a EU-funded study on the usability and usefulness of existing accessibility instruments. The study applied 16 instruments in local planning contexts according to a standardized process protocol. The outcomes of these so-called experiential workshops were analysed through a standardized measurement protocol, which included participant observation along with pre- and post-workshop practitioner questionnaires. This broad investigation presents a rich analytical tool for understanding how different types of accessibility measures, spatial resolutions of output and levels of comprehensiveness affect usability and usefulness. Based on this we propose 10 technological rules that (a) can be used directly in practice to improve usability of accessibility instruments and (b) can provide hypotheses to be examined in further academic studies. Our results suggest that instead of striving for the ultimate accessibility measure, it would be more effective to identify which measures could successfully serve different user needs in accessibility planning.     

分野的虚实之辨

分野是中国传统思想中“天、地、人”信仰秩序系统的有机组成部分, 其本质是建立起天秩序与地秩序之间的映射对应系统, 这里的天包括天体、星座、气象、时间等, 而地也极为丰富, 可以是大的区域、列国、州、郡、山脉、河流等等不一而足, 但最为常见的是天体与列国、州郡的对应关系。本文对分野与行政区划关系进行了考察, 发现分野思想的发展虽然依托于行政区划体系, 但西汉以后与行政区划之间逐渐疏离, 进而成为远古信仰秩序思想的象征。究其根本: 建构信仰秩序系统是分野之实, 而形式的繁杂与混乱, 并不为皇权拥有者所重视, 乃分野之虚。     

From the Ground Up: Agency,Practice, and Community in the Southwestern British Bronze Age

Embodied, sensual, engagements between people, earthly elements, and celestial bodies during focused, periodic acts of ritual construction and artifact deposition in the southwestern British Bronze Age resulted in the remaking of identities, local communities, symbolic/mythical knowledge, and the landscape itself. To appreciate how material culture, time, and space were employed to define the criteria by which people understood themselves and their world necessitates an archaeological focus upon shared practices in particular settings that served to define rules of engagement with the environment based upon shared human perceptions. Agency appears in this encounter as central in the construction and perpetuation of symbolic perception, shared social memory, and community identity.     

Editorial

Abstract

Global science will benefit from better 'international market places' in which potential participants in international scientific cooperation can gather, trade information, and do business, should they choose. Problems with projects such as particle accelerators and space stations underscore the timeliness of institutional innovation. Changes should occur in both non-governmental infrastructure, which brings together the people with the ideas, and intergovernmental mechanisms, which convene people who control financial resources. A major international commission on international institutions for cooperation in scientific research should be formed to assess needs and to propose and build support for more efficient, capable, and reliable mechanisms.     

Sir Robert G. A. Jackson (1911–91): an Appreciation

Abstract

Although the celestial observations made by the Aborigines were precise, the significance attached to them was conceptual rather than perceptual. It could not be derived from observation but only from knowledge gained by initiation into tribal values. The legends which embodied the astronomical knowledge had a threefold pragmatic role in tribal culture: they functioned as a predictive calendar for terrestrial events; they were associated with stories which reinforced the moral values pertaining to tribal identity; and they contributed to the belief system which provided a philosophical rationale for a tribe’s understanding of the universe. Selected myths relating to the sun, moon, the Milky Way, the Magellanic Clouds, Venus, and various constellations are outlined and illustrated by traditional bark painting designs to provide examples of these general statements. Parallels are drawn with the theories of some contemporary philosophers of science.     

Colouring special needs: Locating whiteness in NIMBY conflicts

In this paper I examine the importance of 'race' and racialization in conflicts over the siting of human service facilities. Little consideration has been given to the way in which racialization shapes community reactions to client groups, and the idea that NIMBY reactions facilitate the reproduction of white privilege. I explore these issues using a case study of community opposition to 'special needs' housing in San Pedro, California. Analysis demonstrates that some facility opponents racialized client groups in an attempt to defend the socio-spatial privileges of whiteness. Opponents also used a romanticized and 'whitened' construction of community to mark 'special needs' clients out of place. However, other community members used European ethnic identities to mark the whiteness of middle-class opponents. The case study provides insight into the racialization of need, and the way in which whiteness is struggled over within specific social contexts. It also contributes to an understanding of how claims to European ethnicity may be used to veil and/or challenge white privilege. Dans cet article, j'examine l'importance de la 'race' dans les conflits reliés à l'emplacement de bâtiments affectés à la distribution de services sociaux. Même si les concepts de race contribuent à determiner les réactions des communautés face aux bénéficiaires de services sociaux, leur rôle à cet égard a été peu étudié, de même que la façon dont ces réactions facilitent le maintien des privileges réservés aux blancs. J'explore ces questions par le biais d'une étude de cas à San Pedro, Californie, où une communauté locale s'est opposée à l'établissement d'une maison de traitement. L'analyse démontre comment certains opposants ont attribué des stéréotypes raciaux aux bénéficiaires afin de défendre des privilèges socio-géographiques blancs. Les opposants ont aussi fait appel à une conception romantique de communauté blanche dans le but de marginaliser les bénéficiaires de services sociaux. Toutefois, d'autres membres de la communauté ont pour leur part invoqué des concepts d'identité ethnique pour souligner les antécédents raciaux blancs des opposants, ceux-ci faisant également partie de la classe moyenne. Cette étude pose un regard utile sur les processus par lesquels des idées de race sont imputés à des concepts de besoin, et sur la façon dont ces idées sont contestées dans certains contextes sociaux. De plus, l'étude met en lumière comments des concepts Européens d'ethnicité peuvent servir à dissimuler et/ou maintenir le privilège racial blanc. En este papel examino la importancia de la 'raza' y racialización en conflictos sobre la ubicación de facilidades de servicio humano. Ha sido muy poco considerado el modo en que la racialización moldea la reacción de una comunidad a los grupos de clientes y la idea de que reacciones NIMBY facilitan la reproducción del privilegio para gente de raza blanca. Yo analizo estos temas haciendo uso de un estudio que trata la resistencia de una comunidad a la provisión de viviendas para personas de 'necesidades especiales' en San Pedro, California. El análisis demuestra que algunos de los adversarios 'racializaron' los grupos de clientes en un intento de defender los privilegios socio-espaciales de la comunidad blanca. Los adversarios también emplearon una romantizada y 'blanqueada' construcción de lo que es comunidad, así marcando los clientes de necesidades especiales fuera de su sitio. Sin embargo, otros miembros de la comunidad utilizaron identidades étnicas europeas para marcar la 'blancura' de adversarios de la clase media. Por este estudio se adquiere una nueva percepción de la racialización de necesidad, y la manera en que se sigue resistiendo el concepto de blancura dentro de contextos sociales específicos. También contribuye a nuestra comprensión de cómo las reclamaciones a raíces étnicas europeas pueden ser aplicados para velar y/o desafiar el privilegio blanco.     

The Landscape Levels of Continents and Geographical Zonality

The traditional two-dimensional concept of latitudinal natural geographical zones is challenged on the ground that it ignores the altitude factor and differences in the character of the surface environment. An alternative three-dimensional model of zonal systems is proposed, in which so-called landscape levels corresponding to particular geomorphic levels are distinguished in terms of radiation balance and elevation. The zonal systems are combined into four worldwide groupings: (1) an inner terrestrial group corresponding to a rocky surface environment; (2) an outer terrestrial group corresponding to a cryogenic rocky environment; (3) an outer ice group, corresponding to ice-covered segments of the earth's surface, and (4) an oceanic group. The paper is devoted to the first three continental groups of zonal systems. The traditional zonality is found to be well expressed in the inner terrestrial group, but the outer groups reflect mainly Markov's law of polar asymmetry (see Soviet Geography, February 1964).     

Designers' Attitudes Towards Disabled People and the Compliance of Public Open Places: The Case of Istanbul

Although accessibility has become one of the major concerns in both urban design and architecture, many urban facilities are still non-compliant with accessibility standards. This paper aims to assess designers' attitudes towards disabled people in Istanbul and to test their responses by determining the compliance with access standards for Istanbul's public open places. The study used the United Nations implementation checklist on accessibility, which covers 19 items of 4 main groups. Data were collected at four crowded public squares of old and new centres of Istanbul chosen randomly. The highest compliance was found in Kadiköy square (39%), whereas the lowest was found in Be?iktas (26.3%). To assess designers' knowledge of disabled people's needs, a questionnaire was presented to 114 architects and contractors. Data showed that the majority of them did not learn about disabled people's needs in the physical environment during their professional education and that in their projects today, they provide accessible environments only for wheelchair users. In short, due to gaps in the system that educates professional designers and the absence of enforcement, the examined open public squares in Istanbul have accomplished very little in terms of accessibility for disabled people.     

THE METAPHORICAL VISION IN THE LITERARY LANDSCAPE OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Despite a considerable amount of research in literary geography since the 1970s, particularly upon 19th-century rural novels, relatively little attention has been focused on Elizabethan literature, drama, and poetry. This paper addresses the literary landscape of William Shakespeare with specific reference to the use of the body-landscape metaphor in his dramatic work. It is undertaken in the belief that by conducting this type of investigation we are not merely exploring an intriguing aspect of the literary landscape of a highly creative Elizabethan, but we are also improving our understanding of the environmental perceptions of the culture in which these plays were written. The study begins by exploring the origins of this particular metaphorical vision, and then examines how Shakespeare employs this concept by superimposing elements of the celestial and the terrestrial landscape onto the human body and vice versa. Research reveals that although Shakespeare makes extensive use of this metaphorical device, some important types of body-landscape metaphors are absent in his work, and possible reasons for this are explored. The study concludes by noting that although this way of understanding the world was later superseded by other metaphors, some interesting parallels can be drawn between the body-landscape metaphor employed by the Elizabethans and the more recent Gala hypothesis. Malgré le nombre considérable de recherches effectuées en géographie littéraire depuis les années 1970 et plus particulierèment dans le domaine des romans ruraux du 19^e siècle, les géographes se sont très peu intéressés à la littérature élisabéthaine ou au thAeatre et à la poésie. Cet article examine le paysage littéraire de William Shakespeare et plus particulièrement l'utilisation de la métaphore du corps comme paysage. Nous entre-prenons cette étude avec la conviction qu'en faisant ce genre de recherche, on n'explore pas seulement un côte fascinant du paysage littéraire d'un Elisabéthain hautement créatif mais que nous améliorons aussi notre compréhension des perceptions de I'environnement de la culture dans laquelle ces pieces ont ete icrites. Cette etude se penche tout d'abord sur les origines de cette vision metaphorique particuliere. Elle examine ensuite comment Shakespeare utilise ce concept en superposant des éléments des paysages célestes et terrestres au corps humain et vice-versa. L'étude démontre que malgré l'utilisation fréquente de cette figure métaphorique par Shakespeare, de nom-breuses formes de la métaphore du corps comme paysage sont absentes de son oeuvre et les raisons possibles de cette carence sont explorés. L 'étude s'acheve en notant que même si cette façon de comprendre I'univers a été plus tard remplacée par d'autrès métaphores, des interpretations paralleles inte-ressantes peuvent être faites entre la métaphore du corps comme paysage et I'hypothèse plus récente de Gaïa.     

Fatherhood and the British Fathercraft Movement, 1919–39

Fathercraft and Fathers' Councils ‐ male adjuncts to Maternity and Infant Welfare Centres ‐ reacted to the maternal dominance in infant welfare and parenting in interwar Britain by arguing that fathers should play a crucial role in the upbringing of children. This article outlines how rigid ideas about the 'public' and 'private' spheres meant that education schemes for fathers had to be explicitly and recognisably 'masculine' and were often focused on public functions that reinforced a man's traditional function as a breadwinner and provider. Yet, at the core of the fathercraft message was the idea that these traditional functions were insufficient. Fathers, it was argued, should have an active and involved role in their children's lives and men could no longer adequately fulfil their duties from the margins of the family. However, within a culture that placed great emphasis on motherhood and gender differences, the idea of instructing men in parenting was fraught with contradiction, confusion and resistance. Fathercraft was one version of fatherhood that attempted to reconcile these contradictions in a desire to involve fathers more fully with their children for the good of the Infant Welfare Movement, mothers and, indeed, for men themselves.     

论唐代社会的神仙信仰

唐人喜神仙。唐代有作为的皇帝都信神仙,到处寻求丹药,以求长生不死;朝廷中的官和读书人也信仰神仙,特别虔诚,甚至达到了不顾一切的地步;一些宗室贵族、武将、宫人和平民百姓,也十分信仰神仙。有唐一代,神仙信仰广被社会,深入人心,成为鲜明的时代风尚。     

'Mark one or more': Counting and projecting by race on US Census 2000 and beyond

In 1997, the US Government revised its standards for the collection of data on race. Previous US government practice dating back to the first US Census in 1790 forced people into mutually exclusive categories. The new policy allows people to identify themselves as being of more than one race. The 2000 Census is the first major national data collection exercise to use this new system and its results will reveal both the promise and the perils of the new system. On the positive side, the new scheme allows people who think of themselves as 'mixed' to be counted as such in official data. However, multiple race responses complicate efforts to count minority populations eligible for civil protection and voting rights laws. Furthermore, the new systems pose new opportunities and challenges for social scientists concerned with the measurement of ethnic and racial inequality. The paper ends with a discussion of the implications of the new rules for the imagination of America's ethno-racial future through population projections.     

一门馆藏明天启四年红夷大炮的探讨

泉州海外交通史博物馆藏的一门明天启四年红夷大炮是我国保存下来的最早自铸的红夷大炮之一.为了对其铭文、长度、重量、铸造地点和工艺作深入探讨,采用金相显微镜、Vario El元素分析仪、电感耦合等离子体发射(ICP-AES)检测手段,对此炮进行了金相和成分分析.结果表明,泉州明天启四年红夷大炮为灰口铁铸造,其锈蚀程度较轻的原因需结合保存环境和材质本身进行深入研究.     

L'écologisme français entre présent évanescent et avenir incertain

This article reviews the factors determining whether the ecology movement in France has been a success or a failure. Broadly speaking the French ecology move ment - l'écologisme français - came into existence to fulfil a dual ambition. First, through its incursion into the political arena - an incursion initially thought of as temporary - its purpose was to force other political parties and public bodies to pay greater attention to environmental issues. Second, in the swirl of ideas following May 1968, its ambition was to become a 'politics of the future': among other things, it would strive to displace the other parties and undermine or redefine the traditional divide between the Left and Right. These and other concerns are analysed in order to assess what role 'ecologism' plays in France today. This article is based on the author's latest book, L'introuvable écologisme français (PUF, 2000).     

'People Try to Put Us Down …': Participatory Citizenship of 'Generation X'

This article evaluates the participatory citizenship of Australian young people. Its argument is that in the utilisation of empirical research 'contemporary citizenship needs to recognise what people actually do' (R. Prokhovnik, Feminist Review 60(2) 1998: 95). For this research, an alternative approach to the exploration of participation has been developed which questions the traditional, institutionalised measures of political participation and/or notions of civic engagement that do not look at a broad range of individual and organisational experiences. The article is based on a survey of 18-34-year-old Australians conducted via telephone, by Newspoll Market Research, in early 2001. The article shows that rather than 'Generation X' having homogeneous (or even negligible) participatory experiences, four distinct participatory typologies emerge. These four typologies are labelled as Activist, Communitarian, Party and Individualistic to reflect the clustered modes of participation. The article also explores the relationships between participation and the discussion of political and social issues.     

Culture in global knowledge societies: knowledge cultures and epistemic cultures

Abstract

This paper explores the concepts of knowledge culture and epistemic culture against the background of contemporary transformations in global society. Studies of knowledge culture came to prominence in the 1970s, with the trend towards laboratory fieldwork and direct observation in the new sociology of science. If the focus in such early studies was on knowledge construction, the focus in an epistemic culture approach by contrast is on the construction of the machineries of knowledge construction, relocating culture in the micropractices of laboratories and other bounded habitats of knowledge practice. Not all places of knowledge, however, are bounded spaces, and there is a case to be made for including in the empirical agenda more distributed locations. This is done here by introducing the concept of 'macro-epistemics', to describe wider networks of knowledge generation such as what is often known as 'the global financial architecture'. The discussion concludes by moving out from macro-epistemic circuits to questions of the cultural environment of epistemic settings, and of the more general knowledge culture in which specific knowledge processes are embedded.     

The Element of Sustainability in the Greek Statutory Spatial Planning System: A Real Operational Concept or a Political Declaration?

This paper focuses on the response of the Greek statutory spatial planning system to the concept and principles of sustainability. The query to be answered is the following: Have the structure, institutions, processes and instruments of the planning system been affected by sustainability principles and in what way? Furthermore, are there any public policy results contributing to sustainable development and attributable to spatial planning? Methodological approach is based on cross-examination of a group of assumed sustainability criteria on the one side and recent changes/transformations in the key-factors of the spatial planning system (institutions, processes, instruments) on the otherside. The approach is complemented by reverse direction considerations: in cases of operational processes leading evidently up to sustainability the responsible policy sector is acknowledged and any factual connection to spatial planning is addressed. The main conclusion is that for the time being sustainability objectives in strategic and top-down spatial planning in Greece rather perform the function of a political manifesto and 'legalize' traditional weaknesses than drive real development towards a sustainable course. The chances for operational success are expected slim in the near future and originate mostly from the European Union (EU) political and economic pressures, producing however fragmented, single-dimension (mainly environment conservation) results for which commitment of the involved societies has never been accomplished and confirmed.